Ethical code for
householders
Ehical code for Ascetics
Prescription of Ethical
Code
Ancient thinkers considered
ethics as part of metaphysical and theological speculations and therefore
made moral principles as part of their religion. In doing so, they tried
to indicate the relationship between man and the universe, and his goal in
life. Though man's conduct in society is the normal field of ethics, the
Jaina thinkers have linked ethics with metaphysical ideas and ideals.
Jaina ethics is considered
as the most glorious part of Jainism and it is simplicity itself. That is
why some authors have described Jainism as Ethical Realism. In this ethics
there is no conflict between man's duty to himself and to society. Here
the highest good society is the highest good of the individual. According
to Jainism the soul has to be evolved to the duty of helping others by
example, advice, encouragement and help.
It is maintained that the
first precept to a follower of Jainism is that he should possess and
cultivate an intelligent and reasoned faith in that religion. This faith
must be of right type and should be free from false notions about God,
scriptures and preceptors. Such right faith or belief works as an
inspiration for acquisition of right type in daily life. Hence along with
laying down the path of salvation consisting of right belief, right
knowledge and right conduct, Jainism has also prescribed the definite
rules of conduct to be observed by its followers. All these rules of
conduct are directed towards the main aim of achieving freedom of the soul
from the karmic matter, i.e., attaining salvation. In view of this aim it
is emphasized that Jaina ethics has for its end the realization of nirvana
or moksa, i.e., salvation. To effect this end, the rules of conduct have
to be observed and corresponding virtues have to be acquired.
It is pertinent to note
that the scheme of Jaina ethics that is, the rules of conduct have been so
designed that all persons would be in a position to follow them.
Accordingly, the rules of conduct prescribed by Jainism have been divided
into two categories, viz.,
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those prescribed for
sravakas, i.e., householders or laymen, and
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those prescribed for
munis, i.e., ascetics.
The rules of the first
category are termed as sravaka- dharma or sagara-dharma and those of the
second category are known as muni-dharma or anagara-dharma.
It is obvious that the
rules laid down for the laity or householders are less rigid than those
prescribed for ascetics because the householders have not renounced
worldly activities for eking out their livelihood. The obvious reason for
this differentiation is that a householder has to look after his family
and adjust himself to the social and political conditions in which he
lives. An ascetics, however, has no such limitation as he abandons all of
them with the sole aim of pursuing a spiritual path. He can observe the
vows fully as he is in full control of his senses and is in a position to
curb his passions quite easily due to his religious learning and spiritual
discipline.
Further, the followers of
Jaina religion have been traditionally divided into four groups : sadhus
or munis or yatis, i.e., the male ascetics; sadhvis or aryikas, i.e.,
female ascetics; sravakas, i.e., male laity or male householders, and
sravikas, i.e., female laity or female householders.
Obviously, this division of
followers of Jaina religion has been done according to sex and the
strictness with which the members practice the injunctions laid down by
Jaina religion. The rules of conduct prescribed for the first two
categories of ascetics were almost identical and were to be observed with
more strictness. Similar rules were enjoined upon the last two categories
of laity but these are allowed to be practiced with less degree of
strictness and according to one's own capacity. In each group the conduct
was regulated by vows which every member was required to observe in his or
her daily life.
Since the aim of the rules
of conduct and vows prescribed for the sravakas and sravikas, is
self-purification, it is but natural that they should be classified on the
basis of their capacity. The sravakas is a term used to designate a
layman. The sravaka is defined as srnoti iti sravakah, that is, the
sravaka is a layman who srnoti, i.e., listen to and accordingly follows
religious precepts. Obviously, the term sravka is used for a Jaina
householder who has faith in his religion and is accustomed to put into
practice the precepts of religion according to his capacity.
It is common experience
that men and women differ in their capacity for intellectual grasp and
firmness of will. Some Jaina thinkers have accordingly adopted a
three-fold division of the sravakas as follows:
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Paksika sravaka is a
layman who has a paksa, i.e., inclination, towards ahimsa, i.e., the
basic principle of non-injury to living beings. He possesses samyaktva,
i.e., firm faith in Jaina religion, and practices the mula-gunas, i.e.,
the basic or primary virtues of a Jaina householders, and also the
anu-vratas, i.e., the small vows, prescribed for observance by a Jaina
householder, and is assiduous in performing the puja, i.e., worship.
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Naisthika sravaka is a
layman who pursues the path upwards through the pratimas, i.e., the
stages of householder's life, till he reaches the last, that is the
eleventh stage. At this nistha, i.e., culminating point, he quits the
household life and practices ten kinds of dharma, i.e., virtues of the
ascetics. It would seem that if he backslides he is downgraded to the
stage of a paksika sravaka.
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Sadhaka sravaka is a
layman who sadhayati, i.e., concludes his human incarnation in a final
purification of the self by carrying out sallekhana, peaceful ritual
death by fasting.
In view of his two-fold
categorization of sravaka-dharma and muni-dharma, let us see the ethical
code or rules of conduct prescribed both for the householders and the
ascetics.
Ethical code for Householders
The ethical code prescribed for layman or householders is divided into the
observance of twelve vratas or vows; eleven pratimas or stages in
householder�s life, six avasykas or daily duties; and general principles
of appropriate conduct.
As these rules of conduct
for layman form the core of sravaka-dharma, it is necessary to have a
proper understanding of these observances.
TWELVE Vratas or Vows
Vratas or a vow is a solemn
resolve made after deliberation to observe a particular rule of conduct;
it is made before a saint on his advice or voluntarily to protect oneself
against possible lapses of conduct. The object is to control the mind and
mold one's conduct along the spiritual path. The rules are such as are
intended to protect the society from harm by projecting oneself on the
righteous path. A vow affords stability to the will and guards its votary
from the evils of temptation or of unguarded life; it gives purpose to
life and healthy direction to our thoughts and actions. It helps the
growth of self control and protects against the pitfalls of free life.
It is laid down that a
layman should try to avoid the following five aticharas, i.e.,
short-comings, of faith before he begins to observe the vows which mark
the first stage of right conduct : sanka, doubt or skeptic; kanksa, desire
of sense pleasures; vichikitsa, disgust of anything, for example, with a
sick or deformed person; anyadrsti-prasamsa, thinking admiringly of wrong
believers; and anyadrsti-samstava, praising wrong believers.
The householders are
expected to observe in their daily lives the following twelve vratas or
vows consisting of : (A) five anu-vratas, i.e., small vows; (B) three
guna-vratas, i.e., multiplicative vows, and (C) four siksa-vratas, i.e.,
disciplinary vows.
These vows form the central
part of the ethical code and by their observance laymen can maintain
constant progress in their spiritual career aimed at the attainment of
final liberation.
Anu-vratas
The main five vows of the
Jaina are as follows : (i) ahimsa, abstention from violence or injury to
living beings, (ii) satya, abstention from false speech, (iii) asteya,
abstention from theft, (iv) brahmacharya, abstention from sexuality or
unchastity, and (v) aparigraha, abstention from greed for worldly
possessions.
As regards the extent and
intensity in the observance of these vratas it is stated that if these
vows are strictly observed they are known as mahavratas, i.e., great vows
and naturally these are meant for the ascetics. Laymen, however, cannot
observe vows so strictly and therefore they are allowed to practice them
so far as their conditions permit. Therefore, the same vratas, i.e., vows
when partially observed are termed as anuvratas, i.e., small vows.
Again, for fixing of these
five vows in the mind, there are five kinds of bhavanas, i.e., attendant
meditations, for each of the vows, and every person is expected to think
over them again and again.
Further, every person must
meditate that five faults meant to be avoided in these five vows are in
fact pain personified and are of dangerous and censurable character in
this as well as in the next world.
Moreover, every person must
meditate upon the following four virtues which are based upon the
observance of these five vows : maitri, friendship with all living beings;
pramoda, delight at the sight of beings better qualified or more advanced
than ourselves on the path of liberation; kearny, compassion for the
afflicted; and madhyasthya, tolerance or indifference to those who are
uncivil or ill-behaved.
Furthermore, the observance
of the five anuvratas, i.e., small vows, and refraining from the use of
three `makaras' (three M's) namely madya (i.e., wine), mamsa, (i.e., flesh
or meat) and madhu, (i.e., honey) are regarded as eight mula-gunas, i.e.,
the basic or primary virtues of a householder. For minimizing injury to
living beings, complete abstinence of win, flesh and honey is advocated,
and every householder must necessarily possess these eight primary or
fundamental virtues.
Guna-vratas
In addition to five main
vratas or vows, a house-holder is enjoined upon to practice three
gunavratas, i.e., the multiplicative vows, which increase the value of the
main vows. These three gunavratas are : (i) digvratas, taking a life-long
vow to limit one's worldly activity to fixed points in all directions,
(ii) desavarta, taking a vow to limit the above also to a limited area,
and (iii) anarthadanda-vrata, taking a vow not to commit purposeless
sinful actions, or to abstain from wanton sinful activities.
Siksa-vratas
Along with the five
anuvratas and three gunavratas, a householder is required to practice four
siksa-vratas, i.e., disciplinary vows which are devised to prepare an
individual to follow the discipline prescribed for the ascetics. The four
siksavratas are : (i) Samayika is taking a vow to devote particular time
everyday to contemplation or meditation of the self for spiritual
advancement, (ii) Prosadhopavasa is taking a vow to fast on four days of
the month, namely, the two eighth and two fourteenth days of the month,
(iii) Upabhoga-paribhoga-parimana is taking a vow everyday limiting one's
enjoyment of consumable and non-consumable things, (iv) Atithi-samvibhaga
is taking a vow to take one's food only after feeding the ascetics, or, in
their absence, the pious householders.
It may be noted that three
gunavratas and four siksavratas are grouped together and are known as
silavratas, i.e., supplementary vows because these vows perform the work
of supplementing or protecting the five main anuvratas just as towns are
protected or guarded by the encircling walls built around them.
Thus the five anuvratas,
the three gunavratas and the four siksavratas constitute the twelve vratas
or vows of a householder. There are five aticharas, i.e., defects or
partial transgressions, for each of these twelve vows and they are to be
avoided by the observers of these vows.
In addition to the above
twelve vows a householder is expected to practice in the last moment of
his life the process of sallekhana, i.e., peaceful or voluntary death. A
layman is expected not only to live a disciplined life but also to die
bravely a detached death. This voluntary death is to be distinguished from
suicide which is considered by Jainism as a cowardly sin. It is laid down
that when faced by calamity, famine, old age and disease against which
there is no remedy, a pious householder should peacefully relinquish his
body, being inspired by a higher religious ideal. It is with a quiet and
detached mood that he would face death bravely and voluntarily. This
sallekhana is added as an extra vow to the existing twelve vows of a
householder. Like other vows, the vow of sallekhana has also got five
aticharas, i.e., partial transgressions, which are to be avoided by a
householder.
The most significant
feature of these twelve vows is that by practicing these vows a layman
virtually participates, to a limited extent and for a limited period time,
in the routine of an ascetic without actually renouncing the world. It is
obvious that such practices maintain a close tie between the laymen and
the ascetics as both are actuated by the same motive and are moved by the
same religious ideals.
The Eleven Pratimas or
Stages
A layman who is desirous of
attaining to greater heights in ethical and spiritual progress can do so
by regulating his way of life. The word pratima is used to designate the
stages of ethical progress in a householder's life. By treading the path
of progress, a layman acquires capacity for spiritual advancement. The
pratimas or stages are closely connected with the twelve vratas or vows
prescribed for laymen.
Further, the householder�s
life has been divided into eleven pratimas or stages. These pratimas form
a series of duties and performances, the standard and duration of which
rise periodically and which finally culminate in an attitude resembling
monkshood. Thus the pratimas rise by degrees and every stage includes all
the virtues practiced in those preceding it. The conception of eleven
pratimas reveals in the best manner the rules of conduct prescribed for
the laymen. Hence, the pratimas are like the rungs of ladder: a layman
desirous of spiritual progress must mount the ladder step until he reaches
the top, that is, the highest stage of spirituality as a layman.
