In the second chapter we traced the history of Jainism
in its earlier centuries. The story is not complete for, even if we had
much more space and time, historians are still only slowly unraveling the
confused history of ancient India. In this chapter we shall sketch a few
of the developments in Jainism in the history of India. Obviously we can
only touch on this subject. One of the reasons why it is difficult to
trace the history of Jainism quickly is that India for much of the past
2000 years was not a single state but a large number of small, and some
large, states with shifting frontiers each with its own history.
The major event, of course, was the gradual extension
of Jainism from its homelands in eastern India into the south, and then
into western India, Gujarat and Rajasthan. Unfortunately we know little
about how this actually happened. Doubtless Jain Monks, traveling as
always on foot, crossed India and made converts in the lands they passed
through. Probably Jain businessmen, then as now, took their faith to
distant parts. Other travelers also might have helped. Certainly Jainism
had reached Gujarat more than 2000 years ago.
From the early fourth century A.D. until around 600
A.D. northern India, down as far as modern Bombay, was under the control
of the emperors of the Gupta dynasty. Doubtless the unified control
facilitated contacts across India. In the Gupta period Gujarat seems to
have become the most important center of Jainism in India if we are to
judge from the fact that the great council, when the holy scriptures were
finally put into writing around 460 A.D., was held at Valabhi in Gujarat.
Some sixty or seventy years later Jain scriptures were read at a ceremony
of mourning for the death of the king's son even though the king himself
was not a Jain. Apart from Gujarat, Jainism was well established in many
parts of India by the Gupta period: it was certainly already present in
Rajasthan by then.
An unusual account of India was given by a visitor from
China who traveled there in the earlier seventh century A: D . He has many
references to Jains and it does appear that, at least in the places which
he visited, the Digambara were at that time the stronger section. However
the Svetambara were beginning to increase in Gujarat and Rajasthan,
particularly because they gained the support of the kings of Gujarat. Many
great Jain scholars contributed to Jain learning as well as to many other
subjects. One of the greatest was the famous Acharya Hemacandra from
Gujarat (1089-1172 A.D.). The king of Gujarat, Kumarapala, was his staunch
follower. Hemacandra wrote very widely on a range of scientific and
literary subjects, commentaries on ancient texts, poetry, works on logic,
yoga and grammar, and a lot more. He wrote a major work on the duties of
both lay people and monks.
Large number of sects developed amongst the Svetambara
from the seventh century A.D. onwards, traditionally they numbered
eighty-four, though not many of them survive today. They certainly attest
to the vitality of Jainism in these centuries, a golden age for the faith.
In south India, from the fifth century onwards for some
seven hundred years, Jains also received the patronage of royalty and many
kings favored them in one way or another. Great poets and writers
flourished. Under royal patronage Jinasena wrote a great unfinished epic
which was completed by his pupil Gunabhadra in the year 897 A.D. This long
work includes much moral teaching on the duties of a Jain and is much
respected by the Digambara scholars. In the south one of the great centers
of Jainism was Sravana Belgola, noted for its colossal Jain image, still
an important center of pilgrimage today, and in earlier times a center for
Jain influence across the southern regions. Jainism flourished during this
period with large numbers of adherents in all classes of society.
However Jainism began to lose ground eventually. The
development of popular personal religious movements in Hinduism with a
warm devotion to a god led many away from the religion of Mahavira. The
Hindu followers of both Vishnu and Siva increased in numbers and the
contest between the newly revived Hindu cults and the Jains became strong,
then bitter and finally in some cases led to violence against the Jains.
Although we must not overstress this (for Hinduism and Jainism have
coexisted happily nearly always), Jainism in south India did suffer a
decline from which it never recovered, at least to its earlier strength.
Dedicated and faithful Jains continued to practice their religion with
enthusiasm, as they do today, but their numbers were fewer.
In the north, too, Jainism lost ground. From the
thirteenth century A.D. the Muslim conquests in north India affected Jains
badly. At times Jain temples (and Hindu ones as well) suffered damage or
destruction by the conquerors. At the same time there seems to have been a
decline in religious fervor and practice. Numbers declined and Jainism
became confined mainly to the merchant and business class. However, again
we must not overstress the decline.; Jainism did decline in numbers, and
at times in standards, Jains continued to produce great scholars and many
devoted saints. Jains, as a pacific group in society, valued for financial
and business acumen, enjoyed a fair measure of tolerance and, indeed, were
not infrequently employed in important government positions. Temple
building and the arts continued to flourish. In the sixteenth century the
Mogul emperor Akbar, the greatest Mogul ruler, although a Muslim, had
close contacts with a Jain monk Hirvijaya Suri. Akbar called Hirvijaya to
his court in 1582 and the monk and the emperor had long conversations on
questions of religion and philosophy. Inspired by these the emperor was
moved to impose restrictions on the killing of animals in his domains and
himself gave up his favorite sport of hunting.
While the Muslims dominated north and central India, in
the south the great Hindu empire of Vijayanagar ruled from the early
fourteenth century to the late sixteenth century A.D. Here the Jains were
protected by the rulers and many took an important part in public life, in
government and the army, as well as in finance, trade and learning. In
view of the Jain insistence on non-violence, it may become as a surprise
to some to learn that Jain laymen have sometimes been prepared to hold
military positions. The question whether the rules of ahimsa,
non-violence, permit the necessary defense of one's country is usually
answered by the argument that a measure of necessary harm is unavoidable
for the lay person, though of course strictly precluded for the monk or
nun. In all honesty, however, we may well question whether the military
exploits of some Jain rulers in Indian history have not strayed beyond the
bounds of unavoidable violence.
The building of temples and the installation of images
has long been a tradition of Jainism but one development has been the
emergence of a branch of the Svetambara Jains which does not accept the
worship of images. The Sthanakvasi sect originated in the late seventeenth
century, though its roots are traced back as far as 1394 in another group
which rejected images. Although the majority of Jains adhere to the
ancient rituals and images, the Sthanakvasi, who meet in plain meditation
halls, have attracted many adherents and have produced many learned and
pious members.
