A layman who is desirous of attaining the higher stage
in the upward path to Moksa will have to go through the eleven stages of
moral and spiritual practice resulting from the careful observations of
the twelve vows mentioned so far. They are the Pratimas stages of
spiritual progress; and Schubring says "Horizontally expanded as it were,
these obligations are projected in the vertical by the ladder of the 11
uvasaga-padima".[47] The eleven Pratimas are the injunctions or the ways
of conduct progressively leading towards the development of ideal
personality. They present a ladder (sopdna-marga) for the layman.
The eleven Pratimas are: 1) samyagdrsti (right
attitude). 2) vrata (practice of vows). 3) samayika (equanimity which
helps in the practice of vows. 4) prosadha (fasting on certain days of the
month), 5) sacitta-tyaga (giving up certain types of food like roots etc
). 6) ratribhojana-tya ga (giving up eating at night). 7) bramacarya
(celibacy), 8) arambha tyaga (giving certain types of occupations like
agriculture involving injury to living beings.), 9 ) partgraha-tydgas
(giving up all possessions except clothes), 10) anumati-tyaga
(non-participation in the household responsibilities), and ll)
uddista-tyaga. In this stage the sravaka accepts only the minimum of cloth
like the loin cloth (kaupina).[48] There are minor variations in the list
of practices presented by the svetambara and Digambara sects, and they are
not relevant for our discussionSuffice it to say that in the progressive
realization of these Pratimas a pious layman is led step by step towards
the attainment of samnyasa, i.e., a life of renunciation. There is, in
this, a psychological presentation of the principle of varnasrame
prevailing in the Hindu way of life because a householder steadily and
surely proceeds towards renunciation. 'This transformation is much truer
to human nature a there is no sudden transformation which needs acute
psychological orientation. 'When one moves from Grhasthasrama to
Vanaprasth asrama and then to samnyasa, one cannot just walk into samnayas
unless one is a prophet, but one has to prepare oneself for the gradual
transformation. Sudden change from one life into the other may create
psychological problems as the repressions would accumulate into the dung
heap of the Unconscious. The conception of pratimas is, therefore,
phychologically sound. This can be easily shown from the fact that the
first two Pratimas are mental preparations for the practice of rigorous
moral life. Moral control, like continence is always linked with fasting
and the control of nourishment. Rich food and clothing have to be avoided
as they lead to an easy universe of desires. ln the ninth and tenth stages
one has to break away from the household attachments still living with
family and friends. He is detached and spends most of the time in
contemplation in the temple.[49] He does not take part in the affairs of
the house nor does he advise the family members in household affairs even
if his advice is sought.[50]. In the eleventh stage he is on the verge of
being an ascetic. He has to wear a minimum dress like the loin cloth (kaupina).
In the eleventh Pratima two divisions have sometimes been mentioned: i)
ksullaka and ii) ailaka. In the former there is only provisional
ordination which does not bind the ordinated to the monastic life if he
has not the vocation. The second is the quasi-ascetic, the ascetic on
probation. Still, in this Pratima certain features of monk's life are
forbidden for the layman. He is not allowed to study the mysteries of the
sacred texts. He may not go round for alms as a monk does, nor practice
trikala yoga, the form of asceticism which emphasises meditation on a hill
top in the hot season, under a tree during rains and by a river bank in
winter. They are to wish others as a layman would.[51]' The Pratimas are
thus, a means to achieve spiritual development which will, in the end,
lead the devotee to take a Samlekhana. As a result of the conquest by
Moslems who disapproved of nudity and for other reasons layman in the 11th
Pratima came, to a larger extent, to take the place of monks.[52] Today
social conditions have considerably changed, and we are becoming more
secular-minded. It would be necessary to reorientate our values so as to
emphasise the spiritual levels of householder's life in the practice of
Vrata and the eleven stages of spiritual development.
The Jaina has a conception of an ideal layman and an
ideal monk. A layman develops twenty one qualities which distinguish him
as a perfect gentleman. He will be serious in demeanor, good tempered,
merciful, straight-forward, wise and modest. He is sociable, yet careful
in speech, reverent both to old age and old customs. A true ascetic should
possess twenty-eight qualities for he must keep the five vows, control his
five senses, renounce greed, practice forgiveness and possess high ideals.
He must be self-denying and endure hardships, always aiming at the highest
ideal of perfection.
In the present survey of the ethics of Jainas we can
see the spirit of Anekanta pervading the two levels of moral life the
ascetic and the householder. They are not opposed to each other, nor do
they present any degree o� comparison. The distinction between the sravaka-dharma
and muni-dharma is only to show that there is a continuity in the
spiritual efforts of man. Hunger and thirst for righteousness flowers into
perfection only gradually if watered with slow and steady flow of moral
and spiritual practice. The lay estate was initially admitted in deference
to human frailty and was regarded in theory as a stage of preparation for
the ascetic life. Later it gained importance as the foundation for
spiritual ends. Layman's ethics was always considered with reference to
the prevailing social and religious conditions. Local usage or customary
law, the desacara though accorded no mandatory force, has always been
admitted as a guide, wherever there is r conflict with the Jaina doctrine
and more particularly in the modern period it has been increasingly
incorporated in the Sravakacara.[53]
The pervasion of the spirit of Anekanta can be
demonstrated by the theory and practice of Ahimsa as the cardinal ethical
principle of Jainas. It is considered as the fundamental principle of the
religion, ahimsa paramo dharmah. We may, therefore, aptly add a critique
of Ahimsa.
The five Vratas have been important for the Jaina way
of life. They have undergone modifications as to their application in the
practice by householders as and when necessary according to the need of
the social structure. And 'changelessness of Jainism is a more than a
myth'. Had Jainism become a majority religion in Southern India something
akin to Digambara Mahayana might have emerged. Whilst the dogma remains
strikingly firm the ritual changes and assumes an astonishing complexity
and richness of symbolism.[54] For instance, Danavrata has widened its
field from feeding the ascetics to religious endowments,and Yatra ceases
to be a mere promenading of the idols through city on a festival day and
comes to denote an organised convoy going on a pilgrimage to distant
sacred places. And all the time more and more stress being laid on the
individual's duty to the community.[55]
Jainism is a tirtha, a way of progress through life,
and whilst the yatyacara teaches the individual how to organise his own
salvation, the aim of sravakacara is to ensure that an environment is
created in which the ascetic may be able to travel the road of Moksa.[56]
The emphasis has also to be on the community as well as the individual.
This is clear from modifications of the practices and assimilation of the
prevailing ritual and practices in Hindu society, as for instance, in the
adoption of the right of Upanayana and marriage rites.
The importance of sravakdcara has been enhanced by the
fact that it has widespread application to the community, and moral ideas
of the lay followers have been suited to the needs of the society for good
and perfect social order. They are still useful in the perfect social
order. They are still useful in the daily life of man, whether he be a
Jaina or non-Jaina. A perfect social order would be possible if we follow
the Vratas carefully. The Anuvrata movement started by Muni Tulsi is a
welcome crusade against the evils in society, and the most useful effort
towards establishing a coherent, healthy and moral social order. The
supreme importance of the lay ethics as given by the Jainas has been clear
by the aticaras (infractions) elaborately mentioned by the Acaryas.
The ethical ideal of a Jaina is not mere pleasure of
the senses nor gratification of the body. Pleasures of the senses are
insatiable. More we get them the more we want and the more pained we
are. There is glue as it were in pleasure: those who are not given to
pleasure are not soiled by it; those who love pleasure must wander about
in Samsara, those who do not will be liberated. Like the two clods of
clay, one wet and the other dry, flung at the wall, those who love
pleasure get clung to the influx of Karma, but the passionless are
free.[57] Not the pleasures of the moment nor even the greatest happiness
of the greatest number are attractions to the truly pious, for, their
ultimate end is to attain perfection and to lead other men to the path of
righteousness. Yet the Jaina does not say that pleasures of the senses are
to be completely avoided, specially for the lay disciple. And
mortification of the body is equally one sided. Rigorous asceticism for a
monk is a means to an end and not an end in itself. For a lay followers he
may continue his occupation, earn money, Iive a family life and enjoy
normal acceptable pleasures of life in good spirit according to the needs
and status of an individual in society.
Jainism aims at self-realization, and the self to be
realised is the transcendental and pure self. The empirical self is to be
cared for and its energy is to be channelised, in the direction of the
attainment of the highest ideal of Moksa.
SAMLEKHANA: In the present political life of our
country, fasting unto death for specific ends has been very common. The
Manu Smrti mentions some traditional methods of fasting unto death in
order to get back the loan that was once give The Rajatarangini refers to
the Brahmins resorting to fast in order to obtain justice or protest
against the abuses. Religious suicide is occasionally commended by the
Hindus. With a vow to some deity they starve themselves to death, enter
fire and throw themselves down a precipice.[59]
The Jainas were opposed to such forms of death. They
called such death as unwise (bala-marana). It has no moral justification.
The Uttardhyayana Sutra condemns such practices and states that those who
use weapons, throw themselves into the fire and water, and use things not
prescribed by the rules of conduct are liable to be caught in the wheel of
samsara. Such persons are caught in the mohadharma.[60] Fasting unto
death for specific purposes has an element of coercion which is against
the spirit of non violence.
However, the Jainas have commended fasting as an
important means to self-realization. Among the austerities, fasting is the
most conspicuous; the Jainas have developed it into a kind of art. They
have reached a remarkable proficiency in it.[61] The Jaina monks and the
laymen have to fast at regular intervals for the spiritual progress. More
important is fasting unto death. It is called Samlekhana. The Jainas have
worked out a scientific analysis of Samlekhana.[62]
Fasting unto death for specific purposes has raised
moral problems. The question whether it would be a suicide and as such
unjustifiable has been persistently asked with no relevant answer. The
Jaina theory of Samlekhana has raised similar problems. It is a much
misunderstood doctrine, both in its theory and practice.
Radhakrishnanmakes mention of it as a form of suicide.[63] The
Rev. Dr. A. C. Bouquet Trinity College, Cambridge, states that the
attitude of the Stoic towards his own death seems to be curious-He claims
that one is entitled to do, whatever one likes with ones own life.
Perhaps the Jaina, 'if interrogated, might say the same thing'.[64] He
gives an instance of Zeno who is said to have suffocated himself to death
in his old age because he had damaged one of his hands. It can only be
said that a better understanding of the Jaina theory of Samlekhana would
dispel the misgivings about it as a form of suicide and as an act of
disregard for life. It is, therefore, necessary to analyse the theory and
practice of Samlekhana as the Jainas presented.
According to Jainas, the individual souls are pure and
perfect in their real nature. They are substances distinct from matter.
Through the incessant activity, the souls get infected with matter. The
Karma, which is of eight types and which is material in nature-accumulates
and vitiates the soul from its purity. The souls get entangled in the
wheel of Samsara. This is beginningless, though It has an end. The end to
be achieved is the freedom from the bonds of this empirical life. It is to
be achieved through the three jewels right intuition, right knowledge and
right action. [65] 'The way to Moksa, which is the final end, is long
arduous. The moral codes of religious practices, which are rigorous,
gradually lead to the self-realization. In the final phase of self-realisation,
as also in emergency, the Jaina devotee, a monk or a householder (sravaka)
is enjoined to abstain from food and drink gradually and fast unto death.
Death is not the final end and destruction of self. It is only casting off
the body, freedom from the bonds of life. We are asked to accept a quiet
death, as far as possible, within the limit of our capacity. This is
Samlekhana.
