PUBLISHER'S NOTE
We feel immense pleasure in bringing out the present title, 'The Path of Arhat : A Religious Democracy' authored by Justice T. U. Mehta, as 63rd volume of Pujya Sohanalal Smaraka Parsvanatha Sodhapitha.
There are a number of books in English on different branches of Jainism, as well as on specific topics of its different branches. Most of the works are either theses or scholarly works, discussing the subject with its minute details. So far as the works, meant to give a proper understanding of Jaina Philosophy and Ethics, as a whole, in the light of Jaina Spirituality and Jaina view of life are concerned, we have few. Though there have been some efforts on the part of Western Scholars, to write introductory books on Jainism, yet they could not do justice with it, due to two factors; their biased outlooks towards Jainism as well as their lack of proper understanding of Jaina tradition. Hence a need for publication of a book for common men particularly Jainas‑‑living and brought up on foreign soils and for foreign nationals by one who is fully aware of Jaina tradition and religion, was being felt since long. Fortunately Honorable Justice T. U. Mehta has made a fruitful effort in this direction. He himself has remarked in his note "....my long cherished idea of writing something on Jainism for all my grand children, who are reared and brought up in America'.
We hope that his book, will fulfill the demand of the common English knowing person, who are interested in knowing Jainism comprehensively in brief time. This work attempts to explain and examine Jainism and its relevance in modern age, Justice Mehta has presented Jainism very authentically and lucidly.
We hope readers will find it interesting and will appreciate the effort of Justice Mehta. If this work arouses the interest of readers in knowing more about Jainism, we shall consider our effort worthwhile.
We are very grateful to Justice Mehta for giving this work to us for publication and also for making generous donation to meet out major part of the expenses of its publication.
We should thank Prof. Sagarmal Jaina Director, Pujya Sohanalala Smaraka Parsvanatha Sodhapitha and Dr. Ashok Kumar Singh, Research Officer, who edited this work and saw it through the press.
The proof‑reading of this work has been done by Dr. Ashok and Mr. S.K. Upadhyaya, Naya Sansar Press, so my thanks are due to them also, again to the latter for fine printing.
12‑2‑93. B. N. Jain
Nuchem Plastics Ltd. Secretary
20/6 Mathura Road, Pujya Sohanalala Smaraka
Faridabad. Parsvanatha Sodhapitha
Author’s Note
It was during the months of August to November, 1990 when my wife and myself were enjoying the company of our children and grand children in America on the completion of our 50th wedding anniversary, that my long‑cherished idea of writing something on Jainism for all my grand children, who are reared and brought up in America, took a concrete shape. During our short stay in America we found some thirst for knowledge about Jainism in the Jainas who have settled there. This gave further impetus to me to explain some basic principles of Jainism in simple English.
It is rather hard to understand and still harder to practice the ethical principles based on subtle philosophy and metaphysics of Jainism by one brought up in the materialistic atmosphere of the west. Even in India where the basic doctrines of the theories of souls, Karma, Re‑birth, Ahimsa and Aparigraha come naturally to one born and brought up in Indian atmosphere, Jainism is much misunderstood by some Jainas themselves. The lay‑belief is that Jainism consists only in not killing insects and other living creatures, in avoiding meat‑eating and in performing hard religious penance; but Jainism is much more than this.
One reason for such superficial lay‑belief is that even some ardent followers of Jainism do not take the trouble of understanding some very subtle ontological and metaphysical doctrines of Jaina philosophy. From whatever little knowledge of Jaina doctrines I have, I am convinced that what is known as Jainism is nothing but an openness which leads us, step by step, with the help of logic and reasoning, towards the highest level of spiritual enlightenment where the individual soul enters into the realm of pure knowledge, and the State of complete bliss. 'Jainism' is not an 'ism', It is a systematized line of thinking which, being perfectly rational, does not demand any allegiance to any individual or god. Nay, it puts emphasis on your own efforts and plainly tells you that even the Tirthankaras (the path‑makers) like Mahävira cannot help you beyond pointing out the 'path' to be followed, because they themselves have obtained salvation by that path. They only show the path, but efforts must be your own; there is no favor in finding the gates of Heaven. To repeat what the great saint philosopher Samantabhadra has said: “Na pujayarthastvai vitarage, na nindaya natha vivanta vaire" means “Oh lord, you are the Vitaraga and vivantavaira ‑‑ one who has shed all attachments and aversion and hence your worship or your criticism is totally irrelevant because your worship does not please you, nor your criticism displeases you." This is the crux of Jaina philosophy. The laity would surely find it hard to follow because an ordinary man likes to be lead, to be rewarded for his merits and to be punished for his faults by some super power, may be of totally unknown destination. He finds himself lonely and forlone if he is left to his own efforts. He, therefore, easily takes to ceremonies and rituals which give him psychological satisfaction of having done something to please the ultimate power that be. For laity, therefore, the path of devotions (Bhakti) is more appropriate.
Jainism is principally the path of knowledge (Jnana) reinforced by devotion (Darsana) and action (Caritra). It is not for everyone to take up the path of knowledge because one has to cover that path alone by one's own efforts without expecting any favor from any other source. For many people, therefore, the path of devotion (Bhakti) is more appropriate. But devotion is fruitful only where there is complete self‑surrender to the Divine. Both the paths, if properly pursued, are equally efficacious. But the trouble is that we do not pursue any of these paths fully. To pursue either of them fully we have got to understand their underlying philosophy. Writing of this thesis is a humble attempt in that direction.
I do not know how far I have succeeded in explaining the profound doctrines of Jainism in English, which, in the hands of a lesser person like myself, becomes a poor medium for conveying rich ideas expressed in Prakrta canons. I will consider my purpose well served if this thesis invokes some interest to know more about Jainism from more competent persons.
The first two chapters of the thesis contain historical background, the second chapter having special reference to the life of Lord Mahävira. The remaining chapters bear titles which do not immediately convey the idea of the contents. However, a detailed synopsis of the contents of every chapter is given in the beginning covering every topic which is discussed in each chapter.
The last chapter is intended to show how the doctrines of Jainism can be put to use with advantage in day to day life and how they are more relevant in modern age.
There is an appendix with a map showing political divisions of the country during the times of Mahävira. The appendix further contains short notes on contemporary schools of thought such as Ajivika doctrine of Gosala, Sankhya doctrine of Kapila and the doctrines of contemporary early Buddhism. This is done to enable the reader to have some comparative data of contemporary schools of thought.
I take this opportunity to express my thanks to Padma‑bhusana Pt. Dalasukhabhai Malavania and Prof. Sagarmal Jaina, the two learned luminaries of Sramana tradition, for encouraging me to publish this thesis. I feel grateful to Authorities of Pujya Sohanalala Smaraka Parsvanatha Sodhapitha, Varanasi, specially its Secretary Shri Bhupendra Nath Jaina, Faridabad, for undertaking the publication of this thesis, Dr. Jain rendered very valuable help in editing the same. Dr. Ashok Kumar Singh, Research Officer, has worked hard in editing the work and finding out the original sources of my quotations, so he also deserves my heartiest thanks and blessings.
I am also thankful to my friend Mr. Justice M. P. Thakkar Retired. Judge of the Supreme Court of India, as also to my wife Yasomati in encouraging me to write this thesis. But for the active assistance rendered by my wife, I would not have been able to complete single‑handed many features of this work in the midst of my busy professional schedule.
3, Dada Rokadnath Society
( Near Narayana Nagar Bus Terminus )
Paladi, Ahmedabad ‑ 380007.
Preface
Life's Riddles and their Solution
What is the riddle of this Universe ? What is the role which a human being, the most developed and the most intelligent manifestation of the universe is expected to play in the world. Whence has it all proceeded and whither is it tending ? What is my role, my duty, my goal in this vast bewildering and breath‑taking drama, going on around me ? Or, is it all has no purpose, no aim and no scheme. Or, is this all created, guided and controlled by some super power, beyond human comprehension ? If that is so, what is the nature of this power ? Where to find it ? Does that power work with a design ? If so, what is it ? Who created that power and why ? Can we comprehend that power ? If so, how ? If not, why ? Can we ask that power the explanation, if any, of various apparent incongruities, inequities and imbalances, noticed by us in our limited understanding of the scheme of nature, as it unfolds in our daily routine ?
I am born an innocent child, fresh from the womb of my mother. I entered the world of darkness in the womb of an unknown lady, apparently without any assurance of my safety and nourishment. Why I selected a mother who was capable of taking my tender care with ability to sustain my growth, and why such selection was not made by many other less fortunate souls whose mothers were not able to get nourishment even for themselves ? Or, was there no selection at all ? Was it all a mere accident ?
I grew up healthy, strong and of a fully balanced disposition. However, my brother, brought up in the same atmosphere and circumstances displayed totally contradictory qualities of head, heart and happiness why ? Could it be without reason ? If there is a reason, what is it ?
I entered the world, married, reared up children, encountered and fought many a life's battle, suffered pain, misery and sickness, overcame many hurdles, experienced success and failures, adopted various means to push through the dark, murky, misty and materialistic atmosphere of this worldly existence. But then suddenly a time is bound to come when I will have to say good‑bye to it all‑ and all of it will be obliterated in the hands of time. All in vain. All without purpose, If so, why ? These and other questions of this type have always troubled the mind of the man.
To understand the secret which may answer these questions, to know how the whole mechanism of the Universe works, to apprehend the cosmic spell, and to break through the outward layers of the tangible and visible forces of cosmos, a pursuit of intelligent, intangible and emotional stratification of psyche is needed. That is the final goal of human life and that is the pursuit of an Indian philosophical school called Jainism.
It is necessary to study these questions as well as answers provided to them in the context of some basic principles, ontological concepts and metaphysical deductions of Jaina philosophy, purely analytical in character and logical in its approach, though not properly understood in the West.
Most of the basic principles, on which the whole edifice of Jaina Philosophy is constructed, are now corroborated by modern science and psychological analysis. Here is an attempt to find how this is true. Modern science has revealed that every substance is made of atoms and every atom, when split and analyzed, reveals the energetic interplay of electrons, protons and neutrons in its nucleus. It is this energy which can supply motion and can work wonders.
Jainism recognizes this fact while analyzing the Universe and maintains that the whole Universe can be broadly divided into two categories, viz., Jiva and Ajiva, meaning motivating consciousness and unconscious matter thus pervading everything noticed in this Universe. On the basis of this finding, about two thousand five hundred years ago, not with the help of any laboratory testings but by sheer analytical logic, the Jaina seers saw the life force not only in plants and vegetables but also in so called inanimate matter such as earth, water and air.
They went even further in their analysis and sub‑categorized the above two categories, examined their characteristics and the role which they play in shaping different life currents and tried to answer almost every question posed above in a manner, not only rational but logical also.
They concluded that Jiva (spirit) and Ajiva (matter) are eternal, un-created, unending and perpetual. There is a constant interplay between the two, resulting in bewildering cosmic manifestations in material, psychic and emotional spheres around us. This led them to the theories of transmigration and rebirth. Changes, but not the total annihilation of the spirit and the matter, is the basic postulate of Jaina philosophy, and it is the same thing which science teaches us when it says that matter is indestructible.
Theory of ‘Karma' came as a natural deduction from the theory of causation, just as science recognizes the fact that every effect is the result of some cause.
Thus the Jainism considers the whole universe as a great cosmic mechanism with its own self‑propelling force, un-created and uncontrolled by any super‑imposed outside force. Its unitary character can be properly identified only by recognizing and giving proper place to each of its parts. This leads a logical mind to the theory of total Non‑violence‑Ahimsa. For if you believe the universe to be a unitary whole, a self‑propelling mechanism, wherein every part of that smallest to the biggest, has to play its role, you cannot do anything to destroy even a nut or bolt of that machine, without damaging it, as well as your own self. To know this mechanism, to understand and to explain its working is the task of a philosopher, but to live according to its rules, to play one's own role as a part of that mechanism so that the machine can work properly, is the task of a religious person. This is the philosophy and this is the religion. This philosophy and this religion cannot be carried out successfully without accepting the doctrine of total non‑violence, i.e., non‑violence in thought, speech and action. A weak person can not practice such non‑violence for the simple reason that the concept of total non‑violence is not a negative one. It is not just doing nothing. True non‑violence is not the product of merely an intellectual understanding. It is rather, a product of head and heart both. One cannot be non‑violent unless one understands the real nature of irritating causes. But to understand the real nature of causes and events, surrounding us, two things are very necessarily required, namely, (1) love and (2) capacity to appreciate the totality of comprehensive aspects of these causes and events. As a matter of fact, both these requirements are inter‑dependent, because without the love, capacity to have total comprehension is not developed and without the capacity to have total comprehension, the elements of love is not developed.
This has led the Jaina thinkers to put emphasis on the development of a broader outlook and open mindedness to understand the things as they are. Cultivation of mind was found to be the key to the Halls of Heaven. But they realized that mind cannot be cultivated and disciplined by force. The basic treatment of human mind should be through reason and logic, because the existence of reason and logic is the only feature which distinguishes human beings from the rest of the animal world.
To develop this reason and logic, the Jaina thinkers provided the theory of Syadvada, the theory of relativity, the greatest contribution made by Jainism in the thinking process of mankind but unfortunately, little known to the occidentals. This theory propounds that every judgment is relatively true, because its truth value depends in relation to other objects known and unknown, circumstances, mode of expression and reception and many other facts. After a period of the two thousand five hundred years, this theory has been recognized and proved by another great man ‑‑ Einstein along with other propounders of Quantum theory, on the plane of Physics.
How to comprehend the Reality ? Can any outside agency be of help to you ? No, says the Jaina tradition; your salvation is in your own hands. You are your own master, the shaper of your own destiny. If your pleasures and pains are the result of your own action ‑‑ Karma ‑‑ the way of salvation is also in your own hands because what you have made can be unmade only by you. This is a serious departure from the fatalistic approach of Ajivika philosophers of 6th century B.C. led by Gosala, who was once a disciple of Mahävira.
Theory of Karma teachers us how to attain freedom from the real bondage of all likes, dislikes and desires. It teaches us not to meekly surrender to human weaknesses, described as our real enemies. It says to a person, just as your savior is not outside you, your enemies are also not outside you. You have to seek them within. Once you do this, once you identify them within you, it is not very difficult to kill them. Jaina teachers have suggested a method by which they can be killed and annihilated. One who has succeeded in such annihilation is called Arihanta. ‘Ari' in Samskrta means enemy and the root ‘han' means ‘to kill'. The expression Arihanta means one who has totally annihilated his internal enemies. Such an Arihanta is free from bondage and become Siddha, one who has achieved final salvation final salvation ‑‑ the real freedom. Many in this universe have achieved these positions of Arihantas and Siddhas and many will achieve the same in future. Since they have achieved that really ought to be achieved, they are entitled to our respect and homage. We, therefore, bow to them. There are learned sages, the path‑seekers who show us the path. They are called Acaryas; we bow to them. There are those who preach and interpret these gospels of Truth. They are called Upadhyayas; we bow down to them. There are those who still are seriously striving to achieve the above goal. They are called sädhus (saints) we bow down to them also. Thus the Jainas bow down to all those who have attained, to those who are on the path of attainment and to those who are path‑seekers. They bow down to them irrespective of their religious labels, because whatever be their outer label, if they have achieved of are on the path to achieve total salvation, they are entitled to our respect and homage. We pay homage to them not because we want any favor to be bestowed but because they are the source of inspiration to us for our own action.
ORIGINS IN ETERNITY
Claims of Eternity, Pre‑Aryan roots , Vedic and Sramana traditions , Process of Synthesis , Our Indebtedness to Sramanic Culture , Sri Rsabha Deva , Sri Neminatha , Sri Parsvanatha .
"There is truth in the Jaina idea that their religion goes back to a remote antiquity, the antiquity in question being that of the pre‑Aryan, so called Dravidian illuminated by the discovery of a series of great late stone‑age cities in Indus valley, dating from third and perhaps even fourth millennium B. C."
Claims of Eternity
Naturally the followers of every religious faith proclaim their religion as having its source in antiquity and Jainas are no exception to this. The traditions and the legendary accounts prove the existence of Jainism as eternal. Jainism is revealed again and again in every cyclic period of the universe by innumerable Tirthankaras. The Jainas divide the whole span of time into two equally spanned cycles, namely, Utsarpini and Avasarpini. During Utsarpini, there is a gradual ascendancy in moral and physical state of the universe, while during Avasarpini, the case is just reverse, i.e. the gradual descent of moral and physical state of universe. Each of these two is subdivided into six aras each extending over crores of years. This time‑cycle goes on endlessly and Tirthankaras (Seers) are born at regular intervals. They preach, practice and expound the eternal principles of Jainism.
Pre‑Aryan Roots
But this claim of eternity would appear to be very extravagant if we consider the fact that in our planet, the earliest man of Early Paleolithic culture lived in India some 200,000 years ago, the period when man led the life of a savage. However, now, almost all the scholars agree that Jainism has Pre‑Aryan roots in the cultural history of India. As Dr. A. N. Upadhye remarked ‑‑ "The origins of Jainism go back to pre‑historic times. They are to be sought in the fertile valley of Ganga, where there throve in the past, even before the advent of Aryans with their priestly religion, a society of recluses who laid much stress on individual exertion, on practice of a code of morality and devotion to austerities, as means of attaining religious Summum Bonum".
In the same vein Joseph Campbell, commented "Sankhya and Yoga represented a later psychological sophistication of principles preserved in Jainism. They together are theory and practice of a single philosophy."
Other scholars such as Prof. Buhler, H. Jacobi, J.G.R. Forlong, Dr. Hornell, Pt. Sukhalalji, Prof. Vidyalankara, Acarya Tulasi, Prof. G. C. Pandey and others believe that Jainism is one of the earliest known religious systems prevailing in India amongst the non‑Aryan races which belonged to Indus valley civilization.
Vedic and Sramana Traditions
This religious system, Jainism represented the Sramanic tradition, one of the two currents prevalent in Indian culture, the other being Vedic tradition. Sramanic tradition inherited the same principles which were subsequently systematized and expounded by Tirthankaras such as Rsabha, Parsva, Mahavira etc. These Sramanas believed in soul's potentiality to achieve God‑hood, through its own exertions, the theory of transmigration and Karma and the existence of Jiva in all sentient things. The word ‘Srama' means labor. They were called Sramanas because of the labor, they were taking in observing strict austerities, by dwelling in forests and renouncing the worldly affairs. Aryans were a nomadic race and as such were not trained in the sophisticated philosophical thinking of the fully settled and prosperous people of Indus valley culture whom they invaded and conquered. As Pt. Sukhalalji points out, the attitude towards life of the people who are settled and prosperous, and of those who are leading a nomadic existence would be basically different. The attitude of the former would be more introvert, while that of the latter would be more extrovert. This really happened in case of Aryans who came to India. They were in search of a happy and peaceful life wherein they could enjoy the materialistic objects to the full. Rgveda reflects this attitude when its Rsis pray to different Gods of Nature for fulfilment of their earthly desires and the destruction of their enemies. However, after the Aryans began to settle in the fertile lands of Indo‑Gangetic plains they also began to think deeply, and gradually imbibed the philosophical idea of the indigenous culture. This fact has been commendably presented in the following words of Pt. Sukhalal Sanghavi ‑‑ "The Sramana line of thinking, which had influenced the original residents of India, was of serious and introvert nature. In ‘Kesi‑sukta' of Rgveda (10.36) we find a strange pen picture of Munis having locks of hair on head, dirty and ochre‑robbed, flying in air, drinking poison, delicious by ‘Mauneya' and ‘Devesita'. This sukta thus indicates the distinct class of Munis who were practicing Yoga either alone or in groups living in the places away from populations. On account of severe penance undertaken by them they were called Sramanas. They had no attachment to their bodies and took utmost care to see that no life was destroyed. The lives if these Munis were in accordance with the teachings of Rsabhdeva, the first Tirthankar of Jainas. The roots of Sankhya philosophy of Kapil Muni is in this non‑Aryan tradition.
There were two ethnic groups of ‘Vratva' and ‘Vrsala' which were following this non‑Aryan traditions. There were five sub-races of Vratya group, one of which was known as Arhanta. Vratyas were also the worshippers of Linga. Atharva‑veda contains a prayer of ‘Eka‑vratya' (15th Kanda) who was a Vratya‑God. ‘Linga worship is indicative of Saiva religion. The Aryans subsequently recognized Siva as one of their gods, but previous to that Siva or Rudra was not originally an Aryan god.
In both the ethnic groups of Vratya and Vrsala non‑violence and austerities were greatly respected. Non‑violence, austerities and sacrifice are the result of a peaceful and steady social structure. The development of these virtues in the people, who have to move from place to place in struggle of life, is not possible and therefore, the cultural development of Aryans was based on active and adventurous social life. For these reasons non‑Aryan culture became introvert and Aryan culture became extrovert. Both these cultures developed in their own way, but after the Aryans settled in this land, both the cultures influenced each other for thousands of years as a result of which a new synthesis grew up which we now identify as Indian culture."
Speaking of Buddha and Mahavira Pt. Sukhalalji remarked that both of them are likely to be the Ksatriyas of Vrsala group and that Buddha was also known as ‘Vrsalaka'. The selection of the words ‘Muni' and ‘Arhat' in Kesi‑sukta of Rgveda, is also suggestive of Sramana tradition because these words are prevalent in all the branches of Sramana school namely Jainas, Buddhists, Ajivakas and Sankhya of Kapil Muni.
The Sramana outlook towards life, being introvert in nature was knows as Nivrtti Dharma, while that of Vedic Aryans being extrovert in nature was known as ‘Pravrtti Dharma'. This basic difference of approach marked the advent of different theories in the field of philosophy. One sought to achieve the absolute by withdrawing from the worldly affairs, undergoing the process of ‘Pratikramana' (Returning back‑to soul). The other sought to achieve the same by undergoing the process of expansion which would envelop the whole universe by its theory of Advaita. Both these processes went on together for thousand of years influencing each other with the result that the absorbing power of the Aryan mind made it possible to evolve a synthesis wherein both became complimentary to each other and both became two aspects of the same composite culture. Even the great Sankara, endowed with penetrating insight, acknowledged and proclaimed in his introduction to Gita‑Bhasya that both these processes were ‘Vedokto', i.e., prescribed by Vedas. He said "Dvividho hi vedokto dharmah pravrtti laksno Nivrtti laksanosca", meaning Vedas have prescribed two streams of religion one is action oriented and the other is retirement oriented.
Process of Synthesis
Evidently, with the emergence of Upanisada era (about 800 B.C. and after) the process of synthesis of non‑Aryan Sramana and Aryan Vedic cultures started. The social, economic and political interaction between Aryan settlers and their more advanced non‑Aryan brothers, enriched their knowledge of the former. They began to interpret their Vedas in the light of this enhanced knowledge. At this stage, a recapitulation of periodic division of early Indian history would be of some interest to understand the long process of integration of the non‑Aryan and Aryan cultures, Roughly, the period corresponding to 3500 B.C. to 1500 B.C. is considered to be the period of Indus valley civilization of non‑Aryan races in India. This coincides with the Sumerian and Akkad civilizations of Middle east, prospered in about 2300 B.C. (They were also river valley civilizations) and Minoan civilization of Crete. Thus the period corresponding over two thousand years can be carved out for River valley civilization which spread over northern and western parts of India extending up to Saurastra in Gujrat. It is a story which is five to six thousand years ago.
Aryan invasions of India dated approximately before 1500 B.C., i.e., about three to four thousand years ago from today, practically coincided with the Hellenic invasions of Greece. They seem to have brought some portions of Rgveda and other Vedas with them From 1500 B.C. to 800 B.C. ‑‑ a period of about 700 years may be termed as Vedic and subsequent Brahmana period. Brahmans elaborate the rules and details for the employment of the Mantras or hymns at various sacrificial rituals. As a result of which the priestly class, with sole and exclusive right of performing rituals gained much social prominence and virtually dominated the society. During this period the Aryans had completely settled and had fully vanquished the non‑Aryan races. These were being absorbed in their social structure principally as ‘dasyus' absorbed in their social structure principally as ‘dasyus' (labor class) and were treated as second class citizens. However, the Aryans had tremendous capacity to absorb and to assimilate all new things of life. They not only adopted many cultural and philosophical thinking of their non‑Aryan brothers, but also enriched the same by their own original thoughts. They realized that beyond this mundane existence as well as after life, there is something distinct. For attaining that something the propitiation of gods by sacrifices and offerings of livings beings is not the way. When acquainted with the non‑Aryan theories of austerities, non‑violence, Karma and soul, they realized that something, the aim of their pursuit could be apprehended by working on these theories. This becomes quite evident when in Chandogya Upanisada Rsi Aruni explains to his son the newly found secret of the real nature of the self, not taught to him during the course of the long term of his education in existing Vedas (Ref. to the dialogue between Aruni and his son Svetaketu in Chapter on "Ontology of Atman" in this book). Naciketa of Kathopanisad goes to Yama (God to Death) to learn the science of Atman (soul) by asking the question "When a man dies, does he still exist or not ? " Thus there was a fervent intellectual agitation in the post‑Brahmanic period when the Rsis of Upanisadas began to challenge the usefulness of sacrificial rituals and began to apply their mind objectively to the teachings of Sramana traditions of ancient India. This trend had started long before Upanisadic period but it gained momentum only during that period. Twenty‑third Tirthankara of Jainas, Parsvanatha, recognized now as a historical person, flourished during 872 to 772 B.C., the time when the Upanisadas were getting on full swing. Like his successor Mahavira, Parsva also had a great organizing capacity. He organized the Sramanic order and propounded ‘Caturyama' of your principles namely Non‑violence (Ahimsa), Truth (Satya), Non‑stealing (Asteya) and Restrictions on possession (Aparigraha). His Sramana teachings had great influence on contemporary thinking. And with the advent of Mahavira (526 B.C.) the time became ripe for the final and decisive assault on priestly Brahmanic culture of rituals and violent sacrifices. Both Mahavira and his contemporary Buddha (563 B.C.) led a relentless crusade against the social and cultural evils prevalent at the time. This crusade went on with such a vigor till 8th century A.D. that, but for the advent of the great Sankara, who assimilated Sramana ideas of Buddhism with his brilliant exposition of Vedanta. Vedic culture would have been practically eclipsed throughout India. Now the Sramanic ideas of non‑violence, karma and soul have become so much identified with the Vedic culture that there is absolutely no difference between the attitude of a Jaina and a Hindu towards life's problems, individual or social. These attitudes are so identical that unless one tells you that he is a Jaina by religion you cannot make out from his behavior that he is a non‑Hindu by faith.
Our indebtedness to Sramanic Culture
At this point of time, after such a huge long gap it is impossible to measure the degree of indebtedness of the composite‑culture, to Sramanic culture of the indigenous races of India, which we inherit today and are so much proud of. The theory of Karma is basic to the theory of transmigration, Ahimsa, universal love, and the ultimate salvation of the soul. Because of this theory, we keep our personal behavior and social conduct on the right path. Existence of soul, the theory of Karma, the soul's journey through the cycle of birth and rebirth and its salvation as its final goal are the basic fundamental postulates of all the three Indian philosophies ‑‑ Hindu, Jaina and Buddha. And if we consider that all these basic idea have been adopted principally from those progressive and cultured people of Indus valley civilization, we conquered and captured as ‘dasyus' we do become overwhelmed by a mixed sense of shame for us and gratitude for them. The following observation of Sri A. L. Basham, in his ‘Post script' attached to the article of Dr. S. Radhakrishnan on Hinduism, are the most relevant. This observation shows the intensity of the impact which Sramana traditions have made to shape the composite culture of which we as a Indians can be legitimately proud. The following are his words :
"The most important religious heritage of India from her ancient past is the doctrine of transmigration (Samsara)."
"The evidence for the origin of this doctrine is very faint. It may have been borrowed from the non‑Brahmin and originally non‑Aryan elements in the Ganga valley, and may have gained currency only against considerable resistance from conservative elements. The names of Yajnavalkya, Uddalaka, Arugi and Gautama are connected with it in the traditions. How this secret doctrine spread and became universally accepted is quite unknown. We can only suggest that it was disseminated by wandering ascetics, outside the fraternities of sacrificial priests."
"A definite doctrine of transmigration appears for the first time in the Brhadaranyaka Upanisada (vi.2, repeated with some amplification in Chandogya Upanisada, 3‑10). The teaching here enunciated, which has certain primitive features such as do not occur in the developed doctrine of Samsara, is ascribed to the Ksatriya, Jaivali Pravahana, a chief of the tribe of Pancalas, who taught it to the Brahmin Aruni Gautama, also known as Uddalaka Aruni, apparently one of the most vigorous thinkers of the period (perhaps c.700 B.C.). Another passage in Brhadaranyak (III.2) tells how the great sage Yajnavalkya secretly taught to a questioner as a new and secret theory, the doctrine of karma, that the good and evil deeds of a man automatically influence his state of future lives."
"Transmigration must have encouraged the doctrine of Ahimsa, for the doctrine linked all living things together in a single complex system‑as all possessing souls."
"As a source of consolation, it (Doctrine of Karma) has done much to mould the Indian character and to shape the Indian way of life."
These observations are sufficient to show the intensity of the impact which Sramana traditions have made to shape the composite culture of which we as Indians can be legitimately proud.
Rsabhadeva, the first Tirthankara
Among, the twenty four Tirthankaras, the place of pride occupied by Rsabhadeva, the first Tirthankara, in history was un-parallel. Even Lord Mahavira, failed to possess that. Lord Mahavira had inherited what Lord Rsabhadeva established. Rsabhadeva was, the pioneer of spirituality as well as of Sramana tradition, was temporal teacher who organized the contemporary society by establishing the institution of marriage, evolving the Brahmi script, teaching the art of agriculture, building of the mounds and the disposal of the dead bodies by cremation. He is also looked upon as a great pioneer in the history of human progress. At the time of Rsabha the contemporary human society was primitive and totally disorganized. It was Rsabha who taught his people to live in accordance with the modern standards of family life. It is said that the art of rearing children, establishment of social norms and group life, building of townships were among the useful social necessities which were taught by him. He built the first town, named ‘vinita', now known as ‘Ayodhya'.
He belonged to the lksvaku family of Ayodhya. His father was Nabhi Raja and mother Marudevi. He married two wives named Sumangala and Sunanda. Among his hundred sons, the eldest was Bharata, after his name our country is known as ‘Bharata'. His another illustrious son was Bahubali. He had two daughters Brahmi and Sundari.
It is believed that Brahmi script was taught by him to his daughter Brahmi, whose name the script is bearing. Those days real brothers and sisters were treated as ‘Yugals' (couples who can have physical relationship). This system had much in common with ancient Egypt where kings married their own sisters. Rsabha's daughter Brahmi had renounced the world and had become a nun. Sundari, another daughter, was very beautiful and learned. Bharata, the eldest son, wanted to marry Sundari but Sundari did not want to marry at all and took to severe austerities to contain her overflowing beauty. Bahubali, another son of Rsabha was a warrior of tremendous strength. Bharata, his elder brother, was entitled to the throne. After Bharata became the ruleer on retirement of Rsabha, Bahubali could not tolerate his suzerainty and so there was a duel between the two brothers. Bahubali was stronger. As he raised his iron first to kill Bharata, he realized what he was up to. He at once curbed his emotions and directed his fist to himself, annihilated his own ego, renounced the world and became a recluse. Bharata established a big empire, became a Cakravartin, and once, when he was dressing in his glass room he found that one of his fingers was looking odd for want of usual rings. This small incident started in his mind a chain of introspective thinking and he also relinquished his kingly power and became a recluse. Other 98 sons of Rsabha also became recluses.
Rsabhadeva himself had renounced the worldly affairs after rendering yeoman service to the society, undertook severe austerities for twelve months, established ‘Sangha' of monks, nuns and householders and taught them the first principles of Sramana traditions.
Such is the story of, perhaps, the first royal family of India‑‑ a beginning, ingrained with the idea that ultimate goal of human life is not be sought in the material gains of the world but in their renunciation and the conquest of baser instincts of human existence.
Rsabha is as much venerable amongst the people wedded to Vedic traditions as amongst the people of Sramanic traditions. He is the only Jaina Tirthankara, included among Hindu Avataras (Divine descent). Srimadbhagavat refers to him with great respect and reverence and mentions that our country was named ‘Bharatavarsa' after his son Bharata, his successor, to the throne, who became a Cakravarti.
Rgveda, Yajurveda and Visnu and Bhagavata Puranas refer to Rsabhadeva with high esteem. They describe him as Parama Guru (Great venerated Guru‑Master) ‘One who has taken birth to teach the path of Kaivalya (Pure Knowledge)'. ‘Maha‑muni' (a great saint), ‘one who possessed devotion, knowledge and non‑attachment'.
The above references exalting Rsabhadeva in Vedas and Puranas of Hindus make us to believe that he belonged to the Aryan stock and adopted Sramana practices for spiritual progress. However, it is an uphill task to ascertain his date. Traditional Jaina sources contend that he lived millions of years before in pre‑historic times. His father Nabhi Raja is considered, even by Hindu scriptures as the last of Manus (‘Manu' was not the name of any particular person but it was the name given to a designation of one who led the society). If this means that Rsabhadeva ruled Ayodhya (vinita) after the advent of Aryans in India, the period of his reign can hardly be fixed 5000 years ago from today. Since he belonged to Iksvaku dynasty of Rulers of Ayodhya to which many illustrious rulers including Dasaratha and his son Rama, the venerated hero of Ramayana belonged, it is reasonable to conclude that this great master, the first Tirthankara of the Jainas, must have flourished 5 to 6 thousand years ago, and became the principal exponent of Sramana tradition. In addition to Rsabhadeva we have historical references of 22nd Tirthankara Neminatha, a cousin of Sri Krsna, Sri Parsvanatha, 23rd Tirthankara and Sri Mahavira, the 24th and the last Tirthankara only.
Sri Neminatha
The 22nd Tirthankara was born in the illustrious ‘Yadu' family of Sri Krsna of Mahabharata. His father Samudra‑vijaya was the elder brother of Vasudeva, the father of Sri Krsna thus being Sri Krsna’s nearest cousin. He was also known as Aristanemi and is referred to as such in Rgveda (2. 33. 10) and again in its 6th Adhyaya (Chapter).
Yadavas were a brave, virile and prosperous race of Ksatriyas of Northern India. Jarasandha, the ruler of Magadha was a very powerful monarch, feeling envious of the progress of Yadavas. He was therefore harassing Yadavas by various means. Sri Krsna, realizing that Jarasandha would not allow Yadavas to live in peace, took all the Yadavas with him and migrated to modern Saurastra and established at Dvarika on the sea‑shore of Arabian ocean (Modern Dvarika is not the same as established by Sri Krsna. Dvarika established by him was near the place called ‘Madhupur' on the South‑western coast of Saurastra near Veraval).
Neminatha seems to have been brought up at Dvarika. His marriage was arranged by Sri Krsna with Rajimati, the sister of king ‘Kamsa' (killed by Srikrsna for his cruelties) and the daughter of King ‘Ugrasena' (imprisoned by son Kamsa). While going along with his marriage party for wedding Neminatha heard the cries of animals and on inquiry was deeply moved to find that hundreds of animals, were huddled and tied mercilessly in an enclosure in order to prepare his marriage feast. This saddened his heart and a serious introspection started within him, which led him to renounce the world then and there. He asked his charioteer to turn back. He left the wedding, became a recluse and went to nearby mount ‘Revata' (modern ‘Girnar', near the town of Junagadha in South Saurastra), to perform austerities, and finally obtained Kaivalya.
His would be bride Rajimati, inspired by Neminatha's action also renounced the world, became a nun and went to mount ‘Revata' for religious penance. Neminatha's real brother ‘Rathanemi', had also renounced the world and had taken ‘Samnyasa' and was living at mount ‘Revata'. Once during heavy down pour, in order to get a safe place Rathanemi entered a cave in that mount. There he found Rajimati with wet clothes stuck to her beautiful and proportionate physical fame. Attracted by the bewitching beauty of Rajimati, he made some overtures to her. nun Rajimati responded by reminding him his role of a spiritual seeker and admonished him not to fall from the heights, he was striving to reach. She brought him to his senses. This inspiring incident has become the subject matter of one of the finest pieces of poetry in Jaina literature.
Chandogya Upanisada records that Srikrsna took his education of Ahimsa from a sage called ‘Ghor Angirasa'. Sri Dharmananda Kausambi, a learned Buddhist Scholar opined that sage Ghor Angirasa, was none other than Sri Neminatha. Other scholars refute this fact. Whatever it may be, it is true that Neminatha known as Aristanemi was highly respected not only by Srikrsna and his Yadu family but also by all the members of contemporary society and is the one who is bowed to, first along with other holy names before any auspicious ceremony begins. In fact, one belief is that Sri Balarama, the half-brother of Srikrsna, considered to be the most invincible warrior of his times, and, who was the teacher of Duryodhana, the Kaurava chief, and Bhima, the powerful Pandava. Balarama was the only warrior of note, not to join Mahabharata war on the principle that there is no war which can be legitimately called ‘Dharma‑yuddha' (Holy war). The story goes that Balaram was under the influence of the Sramana tradition followed by Neminatha. Thus in short, these are a few facts known about the 22nd Tirthankara of the Jainas.
Sri Parsvanatha
The historicity of the 23rd Tirthankara Parsvanatha is now a well established fact, acceptable to almost all the scholars. The immediate predecessor of Sri Mahavira, was born in 872 B. C. or according to some, in the 8th century B. C., some 350 years before Sri Mahavira. Most of the stotras (prayers) of the Jainas are addressed to him. Mahavira's parents and the whole family belonged to Parsva traditions. Once Mahavira was believed by some western thinkers as the founder of Jainism but now it is universally recognized that Sri Mahavira, unlike Sri Buddha, was not the founder of any new religion. He was only a follower, who rejuvenated the whole thinking of the contemporary society by giving enlightened interpretations to the principles, already propounded by Sri Parsva.
Sri Parsva was born to king Asvasena of Kasi (modern Benaras) and mother Vamadevi. Like Rsabha he also belonged to Iksvaku race of Ksatriyas. He was married to Prabhavati, the daughter of Prasenjit, the king of Kusasthala.
Those were the days when severe religious penance were undertaken by monks. Many of these penance were of acrobatic type and could hardly be endured by laity. Moreover, thought Sramana tradition of Ahimsa persisted among the monks who were practicing austerities in forests the ordinary man of the world was not effectively touched by these principles. Parsva systematized these principles, gave them practical shape and put before the public for their practice in day to day life. In other words, he established a code of conduct to be followed by those having renounced the world and also by the house‑holders. He emphasized that the penance, aimed at tormenting physical senses without any inner development, carried no meaning. Therefore, he prescribed four ways of conduct known as Caturyama, comprising Ahimsa (non‑violence), Satya (truth), Asteya (non‑stealing) and Aparigraha (restriction of possessions). These four principles together with the additional fifth Brahmacarya, the innovation of Mahavira, have formed the five basic principles of Jainism. Though these four principles were well known to Sramana line of thinking it was Parsva who put them systematically before the public to be taken as a routine code of conduct. From his very youth Parsva was a fervent advocate of these principles, even before he renounced the world and took to religious penance. While in princehood he came across a powerful Brahmin Tapas called Kamatha who performed religious penance by lightening fire all round him. For this purpose many trees were cut and logs of wood were burnt. Parsva realized that this practice killed living creatures taking shelter in the trees and logs of wood. Once on seeing a big serpent being alive, he saved it and incurred the wrath of Kamatha. For this he had to pay heavily because, as the story goes, Kamatha, the ascetic, subsequently tormented Parsva, when the latter was performing austerities after renouncing the world. After living in splendor and happiness as a house‑holder for thirty years, Parsva became an ascetic, took to meditation and at the end of 84 days of intense austerities, he attained perfect knowledge of a ‘Kevali'. He lived for about one hundred years during which he formed Jaina Sangh (organization) consisting of four components, i.e., Monks, nuns, male and female house‑holders. Sangha was again divided into ‘Ganas' groups and Ganadharas where the group‑heads. The whole Jaina organization functioned in a systematic framework. As Sri Dharmananda Kausamb, records ‑‑"Janmejaya succeeded Pariksita. He performed a Mahayajna in ‘Kuru Desa, and unfurled the flag of Vedic religion. At that time Parsva was laying the foundation of a new culture at Kasi."
"Parsvanatha's philosophy was practical. He preached that violence, untruth, theft and greed should be abandoned. This four‑fold rule of conduct was his religion which he propagated throughout India. To give an organized shape to the doctrine of Ahimsa in such ancient times was a mile‑stone in the history of India.
"Parsva coordinated the doctrine of Ahimsa with the doctrines of Truth, non‑stealing and non‑possession. Till then the doctrine of non‑violence was confined to the conduct of ascetics, living in forests. Parsva brought that doctrine to practical life and by a proper coordination of the Ahimsa doctrine with other three doctrines, he gave it a social norm to be practiced in life."
Parsva organized a ‘Sangh' for the propagation of his principles. It is found from Buddha literature that out of all religious organizations the organization of Jaina monks and nuns was the biggest.
These observations of a renowned Buddhist fully reveal the character and importance of this great man. Elsewhere in this thesis we have noted how Mahavira reconsidered the efficacy of Parsva's Caturyama doctrine and found it necessary to add one more rule of conduct namely. Brahmacarya (Chapter of ‘Pancaseel') and hence it is not necessary to repeat the same at this stage. Uttaradhyayana sutra, one of the principal scriptures of Jainas, refers to a dialogue between Sri Kesi Muni, one of the principal saints, following Parsva tradition, and Gautama, the principal saints, following Parsva tradition, and Gautama, the principal disciple of Mahavira, about the necessity of incorporating the fifth principle of Brahmacarya to the Caturyama doctrine. Kesi Muni was convinced by Gautama of Mahavira's stand.
It is thus clear that after Rsabha, the first Tirthankara, the historical figure of Parsva, the 23rd Tirthankara, provides us the first systematic attempt to organize the Jaina Sangha and to prescribe a code of conduct for ascetics as well as for house‑holders based on the fundamentals of Sramana traditions.
More than 250 years thereafter, it was for another great personality, Vardhamana Mahavira, to give a reorientation to these concepts with a revolutionary zeal.
MAHAVIRA : A NON‑VIOLENT REVOLUTIONARY
Transfer of Embryo , Socio‑political conditions, Vajji's democracy, Magadha and Srenika (Bimbisara), Ajatasatru & Vajji's, Princely following of Mahavira, Social Conditions, Intellectual Fervour, Revolutionary push by Mahavira, Significant Events, India's Offer of Protection, Five Resolves at Morak Hermitage, Education rather than exposure, Poisonous fangs of Canda Kausika, State of a Digambara, Association with Gosala, Candana Bala : First Head of Women Disciples, Final Act of Nirjara, Attainment of Kaivalya ,First Ganadharas, Muttanam Moyganam
Prof. K. C. Jaina observed, "For Mahavira distinctions of caste, creed or sex did not matter. According to him, salvation is the birth‑right of everyone, and it is assured if one follows the prescribed rule of conduct. His doctrine of Karma made the individual conscious of his responsibility for all actions. It also awakened the consciousness that salvation was not a gift or favour but an attainment within the reach of human beings".
The world has witnessed many revolutions ‑ political, social and economic but rarely there was a revolution, utterly silent and totally non‑violent. The great revolutionaries like Mahavira, Buddha, Jesus Christ, Zarathustra and Lao‑tse, heralded silent, peaceful and non‑violent revolutions in their contemporary societies.
In the long history of mankind, the period, corresponding to 6th ‑ 7th century B. C. is marked by great intellectual cum spiritual fervour throughout the world. It was during this period that the world witnessed the emergence of early Greek philosophers such as Thales, Anaximander, Pythagoras, Empidocles and Heraclitus in the West and thinkers like Zarathrustra, Lao‑tse, Mahavira and Gautama Buddha in the East.
Transfer of Embryo
This great soul of Mahavira was born in sixth century B. C. Some scholars accept 526 B. C. as the year of his birth while to some it was 599 B. C. Born in Kasyapa Gotra of Jnatr clan of Ksatriyas, he was also known as ‘Nataputta'. His father was Siddhartha and mother was Trisala, the sister of Vaisala king Cetaka. His parents were the followers of 23rd Tirthankara Parsva. ‘Svetambaras' (one of the dominant Jaina sects) believed that Mahavira was first conceived in the womb of one Devananada, a Brahmin lady. The embryo was later transferred to the womb of ‘Trisala' as the gods thought that Tirthankaras were not born in Brahmin families. ‘Digambaras' (another dominant Jaina sect) do not subscribe to this story of transfer to embryo. The story as to what the ‘gods' thought about the eligibility of a Brahmin family to give birth to a Tirthankara is undoubtedly jingoistic and not warranted by the basic principles of Jainism, and mission of equality which the lord himself carried during his life time. But the possibility of the transfer of foetus by some surgical operation cannot be ruled out. It may be noted in this connection that Bhagavati‑sutra, the 5th anga of Jaina scripture containing a vivid picture of the life and work of Mahavira contains a story that after Mahavira became famous as an impressive preacher and masses were flocking to have his ‘Darshan’, a Brahmin couple named Devananda and Rsabhadatta came to see him. On seeing Mahavira, Devananda was overwhelmed by motherly emotions for him and milk began to flow from her breasts. When Gautama, the chief disciple, saw this and asked the master the reason for this state of Devananda, the master replied that this was because Devananda was his real mother. However, ‘Bhagavati‑sutra' does not contain the story about the change of embryo. It is therefore reasonable to infer that Mahavira might have been adopted by the Ksatriya family of Siddhartha and Tri‑sala, This controversy about the birth is not of any importance. What is of real importance, is the life and work of this great soul.
Socio‑political Conditions
Before narrating some significant incidents of his life, it would be proper to make a brief reference to the social, economic and political conditions prevailing in India at the time of his birth because in the ultimate analysis, it is these socio‑economic forces which give birth to the revolutions of the type which leaders like Mahaviras and Buddha sponsored.
The most significant aspect of the political history of India, right from the times of Mahavira (6 century B.C.) upto the present day, is that India has rarely been politically united. The periods witnessing political unity have been extremely short in the face of prolonged history of thousands of years. The second remarkable aspect of political history of India is that when politically united under one rule, our country prospered and earned a respectable place in world community. The third and the most important aspects of our history is that even though our political leaders failed us, mostly in achieving political unity, we retained our national unity mainly because of our cultural unity which our people have developed through ages by their inherent sagacity and wisdom. This cultural unity is expressed through our way of life, our spirit of tolerance and accommodation and our capacity of endurance and patience which we have been able to exhibit commonly irrespective of our castes, creed or religion. The main contributing factor to these virtues is the power of assimilation possessed by the Aryan race, settled in the country. Aryans learnt in plenty from the more civilized, original settlers of this land but they also made their own original contribution to enhance the ideas which they learnt. When Mohammedans came to India, they, unlike the previous invaders, came with their own religion and culture, with the result that they could not be assimilated in the existing Indian culture. On the contrary, they tried to impose their own by forcible conversions and political, social and economic repression. But by the passage of time even Islam was influenced by Upanisadic thoughts giving birth to Indian Sufism which attracted both Hindu and Muslim masses. Today an average Muslim's social and ethical attitude is not fundamentally different from that of an average Hindu or Jaina or Christian. One can find a difference only in degrees. But an Indian Muslim or an Indian Christian is more an Indian than his co‑religionist elsewhere. Thus our culture, developed by the people of our nation through ages, has saved our national unity, inspite of our political leaders' failure and inspite of the partition of our country on the eve of our political independence.
The roots of above analysis are found in the socio‑political environment, prevailing during the time of Mahavira. Those were the times when there was no paramount power to control the whole or even a great bulk of the country. There were small states and republics having monarchical as well as non‑monarchical forms of government each trying to dominate the other. Political leadership in both the forms of government had failed to unite the country as a one whole. Even in the regions not having monarchy, the political structure was mainly oligarchical in character, power vested in the hands of the elite. Socially, on account of the belief that gods can be pleased to make our life comfortable only by sacrifices, a priestly class with great vested interests grew up and the growth of Brahmanical scriptures, prescribing intricate and highly specialized rules for sacrifices, made the services of the priestly class inevitable even for the ruling princes and political leaders. However, the thinkers like Parsva, Kapila, Uddalaka Aruni, Yajnavalkya and many other Rsis of later Upanisadas had started making dents on stronghold of sacrificial priests and princes. These great thinkers had already started a thinking process which was given a revolutionary push by Mahavira and Buddha and which eventually proved to be a cementing force of cultural unity inspite of the internecine quarrels between the political leaders of the day. A cursory look at the political situation in the time of Mahavira will show this.
Vajji's Democracy
Vedic, Jaina and Buddhist texts reveal that there were mainly sixteen political entities called ‘Mahajanapadas' in India. Most of these sixteen entities are shown in the political map given in (Appendix A). As already noted above, these entities were either monarchical or non‑monarchical. The latter had evolved a system of representation by election but the lay people were not associated with that process. Election was mostly of the representatives of aristocratic Ksatriya clans. However, more systematic and more or less modern methods were adopted by Vajjis, who were composed by powerful Licchavis, Videhas and Mallas. Their territory extended from South of Nepal to the North of Ganges. They had adopted a voting system, an organised Federal council, took all decisions by debates, set up a strong administrative system, evolved a judicial administration, safe‑guarding efficiently liberty of citizens and proved a great butwark against the neighbouring powerful monarchies of Magadha and Kosala. King Cetaka, the head of Lichhavi republic, was a powerful and influential head of the Vajji confederation. Mahavira's mother Trisala was his sister. His daughter Cellana was the wife of Magadha King Bimbisara known in Jaina literature as ‘Srenika'. Vaisali was the capital of Vajji Confederation. Mahavira's blood relationship with the Licchavis was of great help to him in influencing other powerful rulers of neighbouring states of Magadha, Kosala and Anga. His upbringing in the greatly democratic atmosphere of the Vajji's must have been helpful in inculcating in him the idea of equality and fraternity, which made him popular with the masses. Mahavira's birth place was ‘Kundagrama' a suburb of Vaisali, the Vajji capital.
Magadha and Srenika
Other kingdoms of prominence were those of Magadha and Kosala. King Bimbisara (Srenika) of Magadha and his wife Cellana were very ardent devotes of Mahavira. Bimbisara had built a very powerful empire and developed friendly relationship with almost every powerful king of India of his time. His first wife was the sister of Prasenajit, a powerful king of Kosala. Anga Desa was conquered by him. King Canda Pradyota of Avanti was very ambitious. He attacked Rajagrha, the then capital of Magadha, but the attack was foiled by Bimbisara's very clever son Abhayakumar, also an ardent devotee of Sri Mahavira. Thereafter, the Avanti king and the king of Gandhara became very good friends of Bimbisara. Bimbisara is so much respected by the Jainas that he is given the status of a Tirthankara in the next time cycle.
Ajatasatru Vajjis
However, Bimbisara was imprisoned by his ambitious son Kunika Ajatasatru and is said to have committed suicide by taking poison. Ajatasatru ascended to the throne of Magadha and expanded his territory by conquests. He was a very staunch follower of Mahavira though even Buddhists claim his devotion to Buddha. Ajatasatru schemed a plan to break the unity and strength of Vajjis and became successful after the long efforts of sixteen years. Ajatasatru waged war with King Prasenajit of Kosala but was defeated. He quarrelled with the strong confederacy of Vajjis led by Cetaka for reasons which are differently given by Buddhists and Jainas. However it was not easy to break the solidarity of the Licchavis and other members of confederacy. Ajatasatru, therefore resorted to dubious method of first sowing the seeds of discord among different classes of the confederacy through one of his ministers who settled amongst the Vajjis and became successful in destroying the social unity of the people. In this connection, the Buddhist scripture Mahaparinibbana‑sutta records a very interesting dialogue between Lord Buddha and his principal pupil Ananda ‑‑ a dialogue which is very instructive and relevant to the present conditions of our country. It is said that Ajatasatru wanted to know the opinion of Lord Buddha through his pupil Ananda as to the advisability of invading the Vajjis. The Master is said to have replied that it was not possible to vanquish the Vajjis so long as they stuck of the following seven principles viz. :
(1) They continued to hold public assemblies frequently.
(2) They continued to discuss their affairs freely and tried to arrive at unanimity in their resolutions and execution of their affairs.
(3) They continue to act in accordance with their time‑tested ancient institutions and enact nothing which is not yet established.
(4) They continue to honour the advice of their elders.
(5) They honor their womanhood.
(6) They continue the traditional worship of their shrines.
(7) They protect and defend the respectful persons who came to reside with them.
Obviously, this was the prescription for unity because unity of a nation is its strength. Ajatashatru seems to have taken a clue from this and prepared for a preliminary grounding by a carefully planned espionage, which sowed seeds of disunity amongst the Vajjis, who were finally defeated and destroyed by Magadha. Lord Mahavira never approved of this aggressive attitude of Ajatasatru and remonstrated him by telling him that he earned his place in Hell by invading the Vajjis.
Princely following of Mahavira
Apart from Magadha, King Prasenajit of Kosala, King Udayana of Sindhu Sauvira (Lower Indus valley), Princes of Yadu family of Sirasena (region round Mathura), Pancala King Sanjaya of Kampilya and many other small princes of different regions of India became Mahavira's disciples and entered his order. Discipleship of many of these princes is claimed even by the Buddhists. It appears that in those days the impact of Jainism and Buddhism was so great and personalities of the great men of both the orders ‑‑Mahavira and Buddha were so imposing that both were respected and honoured by most of the ruling princes of India. The fact that both Jainism and Buddhism led the revolt against sacrificial rituals and priestly hegemony must have also blurred the philosophical distinction between their thinking in the eyes of the laity.
All available materials show that most of the non‑monarchical states of that period, except the Vajjis, were not properly managed by their oligarchical systems. The terms ‘Gana' and ‘Sangha' were used for these states and their leaders were known as ‘Rajas'. They kept on fighting amongst themselves and rendered the administration insecure for people. People therefore wanted stability under the suzerainty of a strong ruler. Therefore, non‑monarchical states were eventually destroyed.
Social Conditions
Social conditions in the time of Mahavira were more ripe for the change. India has alwasy been a stinkingly casteridden society, which, in those days was dominated by a priestly order, which was socially and economically interested in tightening its hold on the social and political structure through the monopoly of its knowledge of sacrificial rituals. Birth, and not the profession or merits, was the criterion to decide the caste complexion. Knowledge of scriptures was not open to Sudras, the lower castes. Untouchables were social out‑castes and their condition was full of miseries. Even their sight was considered inauspicious. Inequality was the rule of the day. Women, who had equal status with men in earlier centuries, were treated more or less as personal property of their husbands. To have more than one wife was considered prestigious by the rich. There were special and more favourable laws for Brahmins. The system of slavery had taken roots. Human slaves were sold, purchased and gifted. Defeated king's family and subjects were taken in booty as slaves. Princes were fighting amongst themselves for trivial causes and mostly for expansion of their territories even though some of them were related to each other by blood. Human happiness in this and the other world was dependent on the favours of gods who could be pleased only be sacrificial rituals. Various types of animals and sometimes even humanbeings were sacrificed to please gods. These sacrificial rituals were to be performed only in the prescribed manner and through particular class of Brahmins who had specialized in the subject. These Brahmins were gifted with land and cows for the sacrificial services rendered by them. This class was thus interested in perpetuating these rituals. Samskrta was the language of the elite. Scriptures were written and preached in Samskrta, which was not spoken or understood by common man. Sudras were not allowed to learn or speak Samskrta.
Intellectual Fever
This is indeed a gloomy pen‑picture of the society. There was, however, a silver lining because the intellectual revolt had already started by the Upanisadic Rsis, who had begun to interprete Vedas with a philosophical gloss. People had started challenging the corrupte modes. There were intellectual debates and the thinkers had started evolving different theories to explain the universal scheme. Forests were full of recluses, who remaining detached from society, performed severe religious penances which many a times verged on acrobatics, Schools of Carvakas and Ajivakas were challenging the very idea of Godhood and after‑life. Thinkers like Parsva, Aruni, Yajnavalkya, Kapila, Janaka, Badarayana and many others of Upanisadic schools, who had preceeded Mahavira and Buddha had already initiated a new type of thinking amongst the intellectuals and what was needed was to carry this process to the masses by those who could work for the masses, could speak their language, could bring them to the status of equality and could make them free from the social and economocal grip of the aristocracy and priestly order.
Revolutionary push by Mahavira
This needs was supplied by Mahavira and subsequently by Buddha. Mahavira did not establish any new order. He merely carried out the work of previous Tirthankaras, the last of whom was Parsva. The Sramana tradition, not subscribing to the Vedic words as last words, was itself divided into many schools of thought as we have already, noted. Mahavira's task was to evolve a complete synthesis of those different schools and to put the whole line of thinking into a sound and organised basis. This he did by the theory of Nayavada and Syadvada, which gave its due place to every line of thinking. When a proper time came, and after he himself got the realization of the truth, he moved from place to place and like a whirlwind, took every body who counted in the society under his powerful influence, which was solidified by organizing the Jaina Sangha into four sections of monks, nuns, male and female householders, by appointing different heads of each and sending emissaries of faith to different parts of the country. He himself was a powerful speaker. He spoke to people in parables and in their own language breaking the monopoly of the knowledge of Samskrta. People appreciated this very much. They were made to participate in religious discourses. In his age, Mahavira was the first to give a fatal blow to the notions of Brahmanical superiority and caste distinctions based on birth as he declared :
Uttaradhyayana‑Sutra, 25/33.
"One is a Brahmin by action, a Ksatriya by action, a Vaisya by action and a Sudra also by action."
He interpreted Vedas and showed that real sacrifice is the sacrifice of one's baser instincts and not the sacrifice of innocent creatures. He declared that each soul is its own master, and it is not in hands of any god to make you really happy in this life or in the next. Your real enemy, he said, is not outside you and you are the author of your own happiness and misery.
Ibid, 20/37.
"Soul is the author of its own miseries and happiness; Soul is its own friend and foe as the maker of good and bad deeds."
This infused self confidence and the spirit of liberty as well as equality in the common man, taught by Brahmanical cleargy to rely only on the favours of an unpredicatable divinity.
To the powerful kings, out to conquer their political enemies, he admonished :
Uttaradhyayana‑sutra, 9/35, 34.
"Oh man, (if you have to fight) fight with your own self, what is the use of fighting with an outside foe? Conquer yourself by your own self. That is the supreme victory more difficult than thousand and thousands of victories in the battle fields."
Emphasising the real nature of religion, he said that real religion is not to try to please gods by sacrificial rituals and violence. Real religion is :
Dasavaikalika‑sutra, I/I.
"Ahimsa (non‑violence), Restraint (of mind, speech and action) and Austerities (religious penances) constitute real religion which brings benedictions and freedom. Even Gods bow down to them who practice this religion."
He did not preach any sectarian doctrines and did not insist on following only a particular path. Nor did he claim to be the sole messenger of the Divine because his theory was that Divinity is inherent in every soul. To a questioner, who wanted to know how one should behave so as not to commit any sin his answer was totally direct and of universal utility. He was asked :
Dasvaikalika‑sutra, 4/7.
"How shall we move, stand, sit, sleep, speak and eat so that we may not be bound by sinful actions. "He replied :
Ibid, 4/8.
"Move, stand, sit, sleep, speak and eat with all discrimination, You shall not be bound by sinful actions." Discrination means awareness in whatever we do is the corner stone of an intelligent existence.
And he came out with the message of friendship as well as fraternity for all and enmity for none when he exhorted his disciples to repeat these words constantly in their minds :
Avasyaka‑sutra.
"I offer my apologies to all the sentient beings of the universe and shed all ill feelings for them. I declare my friendship for them all. I have enmity towards none."
He gave equal status to women and established the order of nuns under the leadership of Candana, a princess of the king of Campa, on whose defeat in a battle, she was taken as a slave and sold to a wealthy man named Dhanna. In the fourpoint discipline of Parsva, celebacy had not a separate place as it was treated as included in ‘Aparigraha', restraint in possession of number of wives. A woman was impliedly treated as an object of possession Mahavira, added the concept of Brahmacharya for all men, women, monks and nuns, thus giving a dignified place and equality of treatment to both the sexes.
It is believed that the emphasis of Mahavira and Buddha on ‘Samnyasa' was responsible for the addition of fourth Asrama, namely ‘Samnyasarama' as the last stage in a man's life. Whatever it may be, the fact remains that the impact of the rational and logical thinking of Mahavira and then of Buddha was so great that the Indian culture took altogether a new turn from 6th century B.C. onwards. It is not that the principles of Ahimsa, Truth, Asteya, Aparigraha and Brahmacarya were unkonwn to the Aryan society. As already noted above, Sramana line of thinking existed side by side with Vedic line from time immemorial and the great Rsis of Upanisadas had already initiated philosophical interpretation of Vedas much before Mahavira. However, on account of priestly stronghold and language monopoly of scriptures the ideas of Ahimsa, etc., had not reached the masses. This was achieved by Mahavira and Buddha, both of whom condemned cast superiority and inequality. The great Jaina saint of Mahavira's time Sri Harikesi was a Candala (untouchable of untouchables). He was very highly respected by the whole society. He furnishes a shining example of the way in which the down‑trodden section of the contemporary society was elevated to its rightful position as a result of Mahavira's preaching.
Significant Events
At this distance of time, having been brought up in the society where the principles of Ahimsa, Truth and Brahmacarya are taken for granted as the necessary constituents of a cultured life in India, we would not be in a position to appreciate the tremendous task which lay ahead of Mahavira in the orthodox rigidity of his times. We have no historical record of the working of his mind when he must have faced with different and difficult problems of the society, he lived in. Whatever fragments of his life and work are available, are from different sutras‑Kalpasutra being prominent. However, as is usual with ardent devotees, much of it seems to have been glossed with mysteries and exaggerations. It is nonetheless possible to know how this great soul was able to revolutionise the current thinking and had his impact not only on human beings but also on other creatures, whom he considered equal partners in the Universal scheme. We shall therefore consider some important events of his life as mentioned in scriptures. It is interesting to note that though contemporary Buddhist scriptures make good deal of reference to Mahavira and his philosophy, the Hindu scriptures are totally silent about him or his work to the extent that but for the existence of the Jainas and Jaina as well as Buddhist literature, the world would have no record to show that such a great soul ever existed and moved in human form in India whose culture owes so much to him. This was the reason why initially some western scholars, genuinely though wrongly believed that Jainism is a branch of Buddhism which is better known internationally. It was H. Jacobi, a German scholar‑philosopher who initiated research in Jainism and knew more about the historicity of Jainism than the Jainas themselves.
We have already noted some facts relating to the birth of Mahavira. His Birth place was ‘Kundapura' a suburb of Vaisali situated at the modern village ‘Besadha Patti' , 27 miles from Patna in Mujaffarpur District of Bihar. His real name was ‘Vardhamana' meaning ‘growing'. He was given this name because his birth heralded the prosperity and peace in his family and the country began to grow. The epithet ‘Mahavira' was given by people to him after seeing the severest austerities practiced by him for long twelve years. He was very handsome, tall and strong and had begun to show his talents and strength from his boyhood. We shall not detain ourselves in the narration of the events of his boyhood. According to Svetambara school he was married to Yasoda, the daughter of king Samaravira of Saketa and had a daughter by this marriage named Priyadarsana, married to Jamali. Both of them entered the Jaina monastic order but Jamali having some theoretical differences (noted elsewhere in this book) established his own order separately along with his wife who subsequently returned back to the fold of Mahavira.
We have elsewhere in this book noted how Mahavira renounced the world and became a recluse.
Indra's Offer of Protection
As a wandering recluse, he arrived at ‘Kumara Grama' and in its outskirts he was sitting in silent meditation, one shepherd asked him to look after his cattle as he wanted to go elsewhere for a while. Mahavira being in meditation did not respond, but the sheperd went away taking his silence as his consent. When he returned, he did not find his cattle there and on enquiry, could not get any response from the meditating saint. The shepherd then roamed about in search of his cattle but in vain. On returning he found his cattle, near the place where Mahavira was meditating. He thought that the man in meditation must be pretending to be a saint and must have stolen his cattle. His suspicion grew stronger as he did not get any response from Mahavira. The shepherd, therefore, was angry and began to beat Mahavira mercilessly with a rope. Mahavira, however, did not utter a word. This infuriated the simple shepherd more. Finally, someone (according to scriptures it was Indra, the King of gods) who could identify Mahavira, intervened and revealed to the shepherd the real identity of his victim. Shepherd realized his mistake and made amends. But the story goes on to say that at this stage ‘Indra' told Mahavira that he was ready to arrange for his protection in future from such events so that he could carry out his austerities peacefully. Whether Indra made this proposal or someone else made it, is not material. What matters is Mahavira's reply. He politely rejected Indra's offer and told him that Salvation can be obtained by ones own efforts and not through the help of others (i.e. ‘lift your soul by your own self' as Gita puts it) and that every one, however, exalted he may be, has to suffer the results of his Karmans. It is only through such sufferance that one can shed his accumulated karmas. This process is known as Nirjara.
Thereafter, Mahavira had to undergo troubles and tortures of various types at places from various sources, but had silently suffered the same without seeking any help from others. The incident illustrates a genuine Jaina approach towards the problems of life.
Five Resolves at Morak Hermitage
From the above place, Mahavira went to ‘Morak Sannivesa' where there was a hermitage conducted by one who knew him. He was invited to pass four months ( Caturmasa ) of rainy season at the hermitage. He agreed and used to live at a thatched hut of grass where he was meditating. Once, some cows came and began to eat away the grass of all such hutments of the hermitage. All the inmates of the hermitage, except Mahavira, ran to drive away the cows and saved the hermitage from further damage. Mahavira, however, remained engrossed in his meditation. Such incident were repeated two or three times more when Mahavira adopted the same attitude. Others resented this as a callous and careless attitude and complained to the head of the hermitage who called Mahavira and tauntingly asked him what kind of Ksatriya (Ruling class) he was that he could not protect his own hut being damaged. Mahavira did not utter anything but immediately left the hermitage making the following five resolves for future :
"Henceforth, I will not stay at any place so as to cause discomfort to others, will pass as much time as possible in meditation, will observe silence, will receive food in palms to eat it, and will not do any service to householders." This was his first major lesson of life of a wandering recluse.
Education Rather than Exposure
When he again visited ‘Morak Sannivesa' he found there one astrologer named ‘Acchandaka'. He was earning his livelyhood by cheating ignorant masses by performing some magical feats. Mahavira knew his tricks and decided to expose him. Mahavira did possess better power to impress people with the result that people began to desert the magician, who then went to Mahavira and told him that his presence in the village would destroy his bread and he would be rendered homeless and his family would starve. While on the other hand, a recluse like Mahavira, could go anywhere. He prayed to have pity on him and his family and shift to some other place. Mahavira realised his mistake of showing unnecessary public spirit (which today is exhibited by many busybodies) and decided not to exhibit his spititual power in such a manner in future. Education rather than exposure is the foundation of Mahavira's teaching, and it is here that our Marxist friends would perhaps differ.
Poisonous Fangs of Canda Kausika
A hermitage at Kanakkhal near the township of Vacala was managed by a Rsi called Kausika. Some boys repeatedly damaged the fruit trees and flowers of the garden of this hermitage which angered the Rsi very much. Once when the boys were seen damaging the fruit trees. Rsi Kausika chased them to punish, but stumbled over something, fell in a nearby well and died on the spot. Story says that as he died when he was full of anger he was born at that very place as a deadly poisonous serpent whose breath as well as sight emitted poison which would kill all living things on which they were thrown. The result was that people ceased to frequent that place and the hermitage was converted into a deserted mess of wild shrubs and trees.
Once Mahavira during his wanderings, was going towards ‘Vacala' and was found passing by the way which was going to the abode of the above referred poisonous serpent who was known by the name of ‘Canda Kausika' (angry Kausika). People warned Mahavira not go by that way and to take another alternative way to avoid an encounter with the serpent. After hearing the story about the serpent, Mahavira decided to pass by the same way to the astonishment and dismay of others who persuaded him to take the other way.
On seeing a daring human being coming towards him, Canda Kausika became furious at his audacity and emitted deadly poison from his breath and sight. When this had no effect on the peace and equanimity of Mahavira, the serpent became more furious and rushed to him to inject him vemon through his poisonous fangs on one of the toes of his barelegs. When the serpent tasted the blood, coming out of the injured toe, he found its taste somewhat different than usual (mythology says that it was sweet milk and not human blood which flowed from the toe). Mahavira was all compassion and love for the violent creature and hence it was but natural that his compassion which ran through his blood had a different effect on the violence of the unfortunate creature. Mahavira had developed a short of communion with all objects of the universe and it was for this reason that he could see life even in the earthly objects such as earth, air and water. He, therefore, could easily communicate with the disturbed soul of Canda Kausika ‑‑ "Be aware, Canda Kausika, be aware of what you were and what you are", he said. Under the influence of graceful divinity and compassion of the Yogi like Mahavira, Canda Kausika was reminded of his past life and realized to what depth he had fallen. He repented and adopted a non‑violent peaceful attitude which resulted in people taking revenge to kill him. His spirit was however purified and he is said to have trans‑migrated to much higher level of life.
States of a Digambara
During all his wanderings, Mahavira was moving nude (Digambara ‑‑ clothes beings the four directions). The story how he remained nude is interesting. After he became a recluse and went to forest, one poor Brahmin approached him, and as Mahavira had given away all his wealth to the poor before renouncing the world, the Brahmin begged of him something as he could not receive any donation from him previously. Mahavira told him that he possessed nothing except a garment which he had put on, and that he could give a portion of it if he so wanted. The Brahmin knew that it was a valuable piece of cloth and willingly accepted half of it and went away satisfied. His tailor, however, told him that the cloth was so valuable that if he could get the other half, he would stich both the pieces into a whole which would fetch a price which was likely to remove his poverty. The Brahmin thereupon again went to the forest in the chase of the Lord. While Mahavira was proceeding further, at one place his half garment got entagled in a thorny shrub making Mahavira's body totally nude. Mahavira looked back at the entangled cloth but did not turn back to take it and silently passed on further in his meditative mood. Brahmin who was following him took away the entangled cloth but thence forward Mahavira did not cover his body and moved on everywhere in his Digambara state. His absolute detachment did not admit of any of the earthly considerations to which ordinary humans like us are adapt.
Association with Gosala
Mahavira's association with Gosala is of historical significance as Gosala was the acknowledged leader of Ajivika philosophy and had a great following both during and after the life of Mahavira. He started as a pupil and ended as a frustrated rival of Mahavira. We have already referred to him elsewhere in this book and will shortly refer to some incidents, which lead him to a firm belief of his ‘Niyativada', the theory of pre‑desination. He came in contact of Mahavira at Nalanda and was attracted by the latter's immense capacity to perform severe penances. He offered his pupilship repeatedly to Mahavira but the latter did not respond. He, however, voluntarily began to move with Mahavira and introduced himself as his pupil to everyone. Mahavira did not object to it also. It is said that he was very impetuous, rash and indiscreet, and many a times put himself and Mahavira in awkward situations. Once at Nalanda he inquired from Mahavira what type of alms he would get on that day. Mahavira said he would get some rotten food to eat. He tried his best to get good food by moving from place to place but got what was exactly predicted. At some other time while moving from one place to another he saw some persons in the forest cooking ‘Khira' (sweet made of milk and rice) in an earthen pot. On inquiry Mahavira told him that ‘Khira' would not be available for eating. And it exactly happend like that as the pot in which it was being cooked broke down though many efforts were made to save it. Third incident was when a plant of sesamum was noticed and Gosala inquired from Mahavira whether that plant would survive the next weather. When Mahavira replied in the affirmative, Gosala uprooted it and threw it away aside. Next weather, on their return journey, Gosala saw that the uprooted plant had grown at the place where it was thrown away. All thesse incidents, and especially the last one, confirmed Gosala's belief in Niyati, i.e.,pre‑destination. These incidents lead him to believe that human efforts are of no avail and we cannot change our destiny. Mahavira was a firm believer in the theory of Karma. According to him if persuant to the theory of cause and effect one has to bear the fruits of his karma, one can also have an impact of his present karmans on the fruits of past karmas, the results of which can be mitigated, if not totally obliterated. Moreover, present karmas are in one's own hands and so future which is the fruit of present karmas can surely be moulded by us by proper efforts. Mahavira was, therefore, opposed to Gosala's ideas of Niyati which took away soul's volition to choose its own path of salvation. After the incident of sesamum plant, Gosala parted the company of Mahavira, established his own school of Niyati, declared himself a Tirthankara. He had a large following which lasted till number of years even a after his death. But at present we have not got any literature to reveal the principles of his philosophy except the tendentious references in Jaina and Bauddha scriptures. Mahavira himself considered him as the last authority on Ajivika philosophy by which his Niyativada was known. According to Mahavira, Gosala's soul has attained higher level of life because at the end he repented for his behaviour.
Mahavira's association with Gosala is an unhappy episode in his life. It was an association of long six years when Gosala also had undergone many austerities, trials and tribulations along with Mahavira. Once when Gosala saw an ascetic performing severe penances and putting lices on his body to feed them. Gosala repeatedly mocked and cut jokes at him which infuriated the ascetic who cursed and threw his ‘Tejo‑lesya' (magic fire) at him. This would have reduced Gosala to ashes but for the counter action of Mahavira, who threw his cooling power to extinguish the said fire. This intervention of Mahavira saved the life of Gosala, but the latter himself mastered the power of throwing ‘Tejolesya' on his adversary.
There is no historical record to show what was the root cause of the final quarrel between these two great men. However, the available material shows that many of the prominent followers of Gosala were influenced by Mahavira's philosophy and were deserting the Ajivika faith of Gosala. ‘Sad‑dalaputta' was a very rich and influential disciple of Gosala. He came in contact with Mahavira and was convinced that the theory of determinism does not explain fully the events of the phenomenal world and that man's own efforts do play a great part in the moulding of life events. He was converted to Mahavira's line of thinking. When Gosala knew this, he tried to reconvert ‘Saddalaputta' but in vain. Gosala also tried to convert Ananda, a well known disciple of Mahavira but failed. These incidents show that Gosala was not happy with the increasing popularity of Mahavira's doctrines. As a matter of fact, he was proclaiming himself to be the last of the Tirthankaras. When Mahavira came to know this, he revealed the past life of Gosala and his associations with him, and when Gosala found that he would stand completely exposed, he went to Mahavira and picked up an unprovoked quarrel with the latter. Mahavira knew what was going to happen. He had, therefore, warned his disciple to keep perfect silence even if they felt offended by Gosala. However, two of them could not restrain at the violent behaviour of Gosala and met with death as Gosala threw his ‘Tejolesya' at them. When Gosala noticed that Mahavira was not provoked nor was he found threatened he threw his ‘Tejolesya' at Mahavira with a view to kill him. But the fire power released by him could not kill Mahavira and returned back to him, penetrated his own body and brought Gosala into a state of delirium. He began to drink spirit and danced, and cooled the intense heat generated in his body by applying potters mud all over his body, and eventually died. But before his death, he is said to have repented for his action and proclaimed to his disciples that he was wrong and was not fit to be called a Tirthankara.
This incident took place after Mahavira had attained ‘Kaivalya' (perfect and pure knowledge). This, therefore, explains why he did not release his own cooling power to save his two disciples and himself from the efforts of Gosala's ‘Tejolesya' as he died previously to save Gosala himself from the wrash of an ascetic. A ‘Kevalin', i.e., the soul who has attained ‘Kaivalya' is never overtaken by emotions as he has attained the steadfastness of an objective ‘seer' and ‘observer' (Jnata and Drasta).
Though Mahavira was not killed by Gosala's Tejolesya he was indeed affected in his health for a out six months and was ultimatley cured by some medicine prepared by a devotee. He lived for more than sixteen years after the death of Gosala. Ajivika faith lasted for numbers of years even after the death of Gosala. Jainism is greatly influenced by Ajivika thinking. In fact the theory of determinism has its own place in Nayavada, but it is not taken as the final word in shaping the destiny of every Jiva. It is only a factor which contributes to that destiny.
Candanabala : First Head of Women Disciples
In the eleventh year of his austerities an incident occurred in the life of Mahavira which has become the subject matter of great pathos and poetry in Jaina literature. As already noticed, the incident is connected with the life of Candanabala who was the princess of a king of Campa. After defeat of King of Campa in a battle, the princess was taken as a slave and finally purchased by a wealthy merchant called Dhanna, who mercifully treated her as his daughter. The merchant's wife, however, suspected the intentions of her husband. So when the merchant had gone to Kausambi, Candanabala was put in fetters, her head was shaved, and was starved for three days, at the end of which she was given roasted black grams to eat. In the meantime Mahavira, who was undergoing very difficult penances, was moving from house to house to accept some alms to eat to break his fasts of more than five months, but was returning back from all houses without accepting anything. People were anxious to offer anything, he wanted to break his fasts but he did not utter a single word and returned back after seeing the situation and the food offerred to him. This attitude of the saint was very perplexing to the citizens of Kausambi because, by that time his reputation as a great ascetic had spread far and wide and it was considered a great honour for one whose offer of food was accepted by him.
Mahavira's method of performing penances was very peculiar. He often used to resolve to take only a particular type of food if offered to him under particular circumstances by a particular person. Others were knowing nothing about such resolves with the result that the conditions under which the offer was to be accepted were not satisfied and his fasts remained unbroken for a number of days. In fact, during the course of 12 years of his penances he is said to have taken food only on 349 days. Idea was that if nature wanted him to remain alive, it was bound to satisfy his resolutions. Now when Mahavira was in Kausambi in the eleventh year of his penances, he had resolved to accept the offer of roasted black grams from an unmarried princess in captivity with the shaven head and locked in fetters and also with tears in her eyes. It was obviously difficult to satisfy all these conditions at a time. For five months and twenty‑five days, the master wandered from one house to the other in Kausambi and silently returned and went without food, his conditions unfulfilled.
Candanabala knew this story of master's wandering and after her own fasts for three days when she got roasted black grams to eat, her first thought was to offer these grams to the master if he was kind enough to accept the same. When she saw the master approaching her on his usual visit to take alms, her joy knew no bounds as she offered the rare Morsels of food which she got after three days. When the master approached her, he found that all the conditions of his resolve, but one, were fulfilled. The one condition which remained unfulfilled was the absence of tears in the eyes of his donor. When he noticed this, he began to retreat without uttering a word. This shocked the enthusiastic devotee whose enthusiasm and joy eveporated. Deeply dejected, she began to cry and tears rolled her check. A back glance at her, convinced the master that all his resolves were fully satisfied. he returned back and accepted the alms of roasted grams from her and broke his famous fast. This Candanabala then renounced the world. She was freed by her master and she was made the first head of the order of Jaina nuns.
This story of untained devotion has inspired the imagination of many poets who have vividly described the masters fortitude and a selfless surrender of a devotee.
Final Act of Nirjara
Twelfth year of the master's penances records an incident which shows that even a great soul like that of Mahavira had to bear the fruits of his Karmas (actions). While depicting the life of Mahavira the Jaina scriptures do not begin with the birth of last as Vardhamana. They begin with several lives which his soul had to live before the last birth. This stands to reason because Jaina philosophers, like all Indian philosophers, do not subscribe to the view that the history of soul's journey begins with the present life only. According to them, present life is but a step in the long journey which extends from one life to the other till one gets salvation.
In one of his lives as a king fond of music, he had ordered one of his attendants to stop the music after he went to sleep. The attendant howeve, liked to hear the music and so did not stop the same as directed. When the king that his order was flouted, he ordered to punish the attendant by pouring boiling lead in his ears. Mahavira's soul had to pay for this cruelty in the twelfth year of his ascetic life when he visited ‘Chammanigama'. There it happened that while he was in meditation, a cowherd inquired from him the where abouts of his bullocks, grazing in the vicinity. He, however, did not get any reply from the meditating Yogi. Anraged by this act Yogi of the cowherd punished the master by inserting pointed nails in his ears. The pain of this punishment was so severe that a doctor, at the town Apapa where the master had gone on a visit, believed from his face to be suffering from some painful disease. Later on the doctor knowing the real cause of the pain, took out the nails when, as the story runs, even Mahavira gave a shriek of pain. By observing voluntarily, very severe penances for a long period of twelve years, Mahavira had practically completed the process of Nirjara (shedding of accummulated karmas). However, the karma of putting boiling lead in the ears of a helpless attendant for a minor breach was of the type, which could not be shed by voluntary penances (known as Sakama Nirjara). Fruits of that karma were bound to be enjoyed and Mahavira's soul was no exception to this rule. The theory of karma as understood by Jaina thinkers classify the Karmas of different categories. One category is of the karmas, the result of which can not be avoided by Sakama Nirjara even by practicing penances. Such results have to be suffered with equanimity, patience and fortitude so that while suffering the same new karmas are not earned.
Mahavira's soul had now become free from the burden of past karmas. He had already ceased to earn fresh karmas as the process of ‘Samvara' was already over when he took to the life of an ascetic at the age of 30 years.
Attainment of Kaivalya
His soul took the final jump in the thirteenth year of his life as an ascetic when he was 42 years of age. It was on the 10th day of the brighter half of the month of Vaisakha during Uttaraphalguni Naksatra when he was in deep meditation on the bank of river Rjubalika outside the town of Jrmbhika (believed to be near Pavapuri in Bihar). He now attained complete enlightenment and became an ‘Arhat', a Kevalin who can objectivley comprehend all objects and events of the universe, one who is himself pure knowledge, having no desire, one who is all compassion for everything, and one who holds his body, mind and name only to serve the universe selflessly by teaching the path of salvation to others.
From this point onwards, he preached his gospel of Ahimsa for thirty years by moving on foot from East to West of India, by organizing the Sangha and sending his missonaries to various places.
His style of preaching was unique. He never insisted that his disciples and those who came to him to seek solace to behave only in a particular manner. After giving his own explanation he used to say "Oh dear one of Gods (Devanupriya) now act according to your pleasure (Jahasukham)."
He was outspoken, but did not utter anything unless it was absolutely necessary. So long as he was alive he saw to it that a strict discipline was maintained in his order of monks and nuns. Meghakumara was one of the sons of king Bimbisara (Srenika). He entered the order of Monks taking Samnyasa from Mahavira. Being the junior most in the order of monks he had to sleep at a place, very uncomfortable and all passersby were occasionally stumbling against him. Being a prince reared up in royal comforts, he felt humiliated and made a grievance. But the master, who was a strict disciplinarian, admonished him and made him conscious of his duties.
First Ganadharas
The first religious conference called ‘Samavasarana' at which the master gave his first sermon was held on the bank of river Ujjuvaliya (Rjubalika). This discourse remained unfruitful in the sense that nobody came forth to take Samnyasa. However, the second discourse at Pava was most succesful. As we shall notice hereafter Indrabhuti Gautam had a debate with the master on the existence of ‘self'. As he was satistied he became the firest disciple of note. His hundred of pupils also became Mahavira's disciples. Story of Indrabhuti's conversion went round with the result that ten other Brahmins learned in Vedas came to the master and had discourses with him on various subjects, now forming core of Jainism. They all became his disciples. These eleven are called Ganadharas as they were appointed as the first heads of different groups of monks. Mahavira survived all of then except the first Ganadhara Indrabhuti Gautam and the fifth one Sudharma. It is significant that all these first principal disciples were Brahmins of great repute and learning which shows that the silent ideological revolution had already started in the intelligentsia of the time.
Muttanam‑Moyaganam
Muttanam‑moyaganam means ‘One who becomes free and makes others free' ‑‑ such is the description of the souls like the great Mahavira. After thirty long years of wanderings for the spread of the gospel of non‑violence and peace, the master spent his last ‘Caturmasa' (four months of say for rainy season) at Pavapuri. It is in this way that his initial second discourse was fruitful and he started his march of victory. Three months of his four monthly stay were over and the end of the dark half of the month of kartika was coming near. The master saw that it was the time for his soul to leave the last of its earthly connections. At that time (according to kalpasutra) eighteen confederate kings of Kasa and Kosala, nine Licchavis, and nine Mallas and many others had gathered for his Darsana. Before his (Nirvana) the master gave his last discourse showing how sinful life ends in a series of painful events, and how the life devoted to virtues like non‑violence and truth ends in peace, tranquility and happiness. Ganadhara Sudharma who survived the master has recorded this discourse in the scripture called ‘Uttaradhyayana‑sutra'.
The master was conscious of the attachment which Indra‑bhuti Gautam, his principle disciple, had for him. He wanted Gautam to shed away this attachment, an obstacle to his attainment of Kaivalya. He therefore, sent Gautam away on a mission so that he may not witness his end.
After finishing his last discourse the maste