Doctrine of Karman in Jain Philosophy

 

By - Dr. H. V. Glasenapp

 

Publisher's Note (Reprint Edition)

 

Dedicated to

 

Publisher's Note (Reprint Edition)

 

FORWARD by Rev. R. Zimmermann, S.J.

 

The subject‑matter of "The Doctrine of karman in Jain Philosophy" is  of supreme importance both to the adherent of Jain tenets and to the student of religion.  The orthodox Jain will find set forth here what forms a central part of his belief, and what more or less actuates his life according to the dogma he professes. And whatever faith one may adhere to, it is necessary to give oneself an account of it as far as possible. For, that cannot be called a religion fit for rational Beings that does not stand the test of reason, or which even runs counter to the  laws of human understanding. True, every religion worth the name has to face, and grapple with, problem that have been  solved in a variety of ways by the thinkers and teachers of mankind. In every religion which rises above the primitive forms of worship questions may be found to which no answer may have been given so far by the system, in part because the questions have not been gone into, in part because the premises of the system are not such as would lead to, or even allow, a consistent reply to every query. But there are‑and just in the highest forms of religion‑How's and Why's to which no human intellect will ever be able to give a satisfactory, exhaustive reply. In such cases it must suffice to show that these doctrines, though they are shrouded in mystery, yet aren't wantonly put forth, that they are not without cohesion with the rest of the system, and that they lie still within the domain of sound thinking. Such doctrines must even not be without direct or indirect support either from logical deduction or from experience or from both. It is not permissible that they should be mere statements for the sake of the system, and without some proof or other. Such statements would be untenable, whether they proceed from a delight in theoretical systematizing, without an eye to facts, or whether they are the result of a fertile fancy's play.

 

The follower of Mahavira, then has got here a golden opportunity of seeing how far the doctrine of the founder and the recognized exponents of Jainism satisfies the requirements laid down in the above principles. In other words, the present exposition of the doctrine of Karman in the Jain Philosophy will afford to the Jain of these days a welcome chance of gauging his religion by the standard of principles recognized by the modern student of philosophy and theology. And it must be a distinct delight to the thinkers among the ranks of this belief to see how their creed, old and venerable to them, fits in with or contradicts, as the case may be, twentieth century views. It is in particular to this class of thinkers that the present book appeals, a class for which the Jain community has been more remarkable than many another rival creed in India. It is probably owing to their enthusiasm, conservatism and, at the same time, adaptability, that Mahavira's doctrine has found followers so early and unflinching, that it has lasted for more than 2000 years, and has outlived such a formidable competitor as Buddhism at one time threatened to become.

 

But the book before us is of importance for every student of religion, be he within or without the circle of Mahavira's adherents, because it treats of the Karman, a central, if not the fundamental, doctrine in most of the world's religions. Apart from the emphasis with which Karman is taught in Jainism, the Jain doctrine on this point is of uncommon interest, as it postulates such a nature of Karman which would seem to represent an extreme. For, in no other system, perhaps, has Karman been taught to be of such concrete, realistic, physical nature as here. This should not be taken to imply that other systems of philosophy and religion had not beliefs regarding Karman that seem at least to approach the Jain version. The technical terms as well as the illustrations, used in teaching and explaining Karman in Vedanta for instance, appear to suggest that the moral element in each action which is followed by reward or punishment would produce a physical entity, to be consumed in enduring the pain or enjoying the reward. But nowhere, if our sources and their knowledge are comprehensive enough, has the physical nature of the Karman been asserted with such stress as in Jainism. A moral fact, then, good or bad produces a psycho‑physical quality, a real not merely symbolical mark, a characteristic in the most literal sense, affecting the soul in its physical nature. This point of view once taken, it was not unnatural, that the analysis of the production, nature and effect of the Karman should assume such an almost mathematical form as it has done in the Karmagranthas and other authoritative writings, and bring rather heterogeneous elements together under the common category Karman. Anyone however, who should find the Jain doctrine of Karman and its psycho‑physical analysis by the classical writers too minute and complicated, is referred to Buddhist psychology. There he may readily convince himself that either these writers have merely systematized for the system's sake, or have seen a good deal more than we, for some reason or other, are able to see.

 

The second point that before others attracts attention is the question about the age of the Karman theory. Though the doctrine has been developed with a minuteness in detail, a care in classification, a definiteness in statement, which would do credit to the most methodical modern system, yet here again the question about its age remains, for the time being, an open one. At least one thousand years before the Christian era the Karman tenet is said to have been in vogue. This is of course supposed to be the lower limit, the higher one possibly lying much further back in antiquity. But the fact is significant that it cannot be shown where precisely and when a doctrine of such central position as that of the Karman originated. That the fundamental idea of Karman is part and parcel of the Jain cannon may be as readily accepted as the assumption that later writers have developed the theory in detail and expressed in technical terms what the elders implicitly had taught and believed. But if neither Jainism, nor Buddhism, nor Hinduism has got to show a definite date of origin for a doctrine that with all of them is a pivot of their beliefs, might it not be assumed that this doctrine of the Karman in its various shades is an inheritance of old, a technical expression of the universally acknowledged law of moral retribution?

 

The third point that strikes the modern student of religion is  the great insight attached to authority. In this Jainism indeed does not  stand alone. The Vedic Rsi of yore, the Tathagata with the Buddhist, claimed and enjoyed as undisputed an authority in deciding the most momentous problems as the Jain Kevalin. But that they all were credited with such insight into things beyond the sense and primitive thinking as would command unswerving faith, and would cut short questions like Why? and How?: this is a document of the fact that even atheistic religious systems, to say nothing of strict Theism, profess to be a higher message, and claim to convey a preternatural, if not a supernatural truth.

 

So much about the book before us and its contents. One more word about the author. In the Preface to the English Edition (p.21) he makes mention of "the difficulty which besets a European in penetrating into an intricate Indian philosophical system". It is true, in undertaking and accomplishing such a task everything is against him, except the will to know and to get over every obstacle. The Indian can hardly realize how a day's perhaps a week's work may be lying behind the grasp of term the understanding of which is a matter of  tradition to him. Considering what Dr. Von Glasenapp has achieved, it may not be easy to say who is to be congratulated more, whether he who has mastered so successfully the task before him, or the readers, the members of the Jain community before all, who thus easily enter into the fruits of the author's labor. The Encyclopedia for Indo Aryan Research ( I. Band, I. Heft B, Geschichte der Sanskrit‑Philologie and Indischen Altertumskunde, von Ernst Windisch, p.354), acknowledges the worth of the present book which it calls "an importance new publication on Jainism "that" should make the understanding of the Karman doctrine easier". Indeed it requires more than an ordinary acumen to find  out from an even string of Gathas the leading lines of a whole system, to coordinate and subordinate them according to their importance and consequence, and to marshal the details into their respective quarters. It needs a will to conquer in order to enter upon tasks of this kind, not unlike the entering of a forest in a dark continent, possibly untrodden by human foot, bristling with technical terms, unexplained, yet full of settled meaning, often enough not to be derived from etymology. The enthusiasm and love of a research scholar is required for trying one's strength at such problems with the likely, but by no means certain, prospect of pushing the limits of our knowledge at least a little further back into the vast realm hitherto unknown and unexplored. May the English edition of "The Doctrine of the Karman in Jain Philosophy" meet with the same success in India, its spiritual home, the German one has met with in a foreign land.

 

St.Xavier's College, Bombay,                           R. Zimmermann, S.J.

May 15, 1921

 

PREFACE TO THE GERMAN EDITION by

Dr. Helmuth von Glasenapp

 

 

The doctrine of Karman is the central dogma of the Indian religions. It means: every action, every word, every thought produces, besides its visible, an invisible, transcendental effect‑the Karman: every action produces, if one may so express it, certain potential energies which, under given conditions, are changing themselves into actual energies, forces which, either as reward or punishment, enter sooner or later into appearance. As in the case of a bond which, although the amount borrowed may long ago have been spent, continues to exist and only loses its validity on the repayment of the capital sum, so also the invisible effect of an action remains in existence long after the visible one has disappeared 1. This effect does not confine itself to the present life, but continues beyond it; it destines qualitatively and quantitatively the state after death. Actions performed during the present existence are the causes of the future existence, and the present life is, in its condition and duration the result of the actions of the preceding one. Thus the natural difference between individuals finds an  explanation which is so plausible that inversely it is adduced as a proof of the truth of the karman theory 2. The karman doctrine involves the idea of an eternal metempsychosis; for as in each new existence actions which must be expiated in a future life are performed anew, so the migration of souls continues without end; but as on the other hand every existence presupposes the actions of a preceding one, so likewise it is without beginning. Now, however, the idea of the eternity of the samsara, as soon as life was contemplated pessimistically, necessarily led to the endeavor to bring the painful re-incarnation to an end and eradicate the power of the karman. To this longing after salvation from the painful cycle of re‑births a great number of religious and philosophical systems owe their origin, systems which, widely as they may deviate from one another in detail, are all in agreement in belief in the operating power of fault and of merit, in acceptance of the theory of the migration of souls, and in striving after a nirvana.

 

When and where the karman doctrine has had its origin in India we do not know; 3 only is it sure that it existed at least a thousand years before the beginning of the Christian Era, and has since become the basis and center of religious thought. Although the various sets and schools are to some extent in accord with one another in their estimation of the efficacy of the karman, there exist great differences between them regarding its philosophical explanation. There may be distinguished a whole scale of views, from the most extreme realism, which regards the karman as a complexity of material particles infecting the sinful souls, to the most extreme idealism, according to which it is a species of newly‑produced invisible force, after all, in its highest meaning only unreal, because the entire world of the senses is an empty illusion, a dream, a Fata Morgana.

 

The conception first mentioned, the most realistic of all that have had their origin in India, is that of the Jains, of that Indian religious community which has existed from pre‑Buddhistic times down to the present day. Their fundamental idea is, that the soul, pure in itself, is polluted through its actions and, in order to regain its natural state, must be freed from its stain‑an idea which is also found in other religions, but which, however, while it has remained with them only an allegorical expression, has been adopted by the Jains in the real sense of the word, and has been worked up into an original system, which even now is the foundation of the belief of one‑and‑a‑half million people.

 

The karman theory of the Jains as still taught to‑day has been fully dealt with in a great number of works. Of these up till now, as far as I know, the following have been published: (1) the karmagranthas; (2) the Pancasamgraha; and (3) the karmaprakrti.

 

The Karmagranthas

The Karmagranthas are six books, of different dimensions, which treat of the most important points of the karman doctrine. The text, composed in Prakrit‑Gathas, and the Sanskrit Commentary on  books I‑V., have been written by Devendrasuri (died Samvat 1327 in Malava). There also exist a Commentary on the Gathas, Balavabodhas written in Gujarati by Maticandra, Yasahsoma 1* and his pupil Jayasoma, which is printed in the collection Prakaranaratnakara (Bombay, Samvat 1937) Vol. IV, pp. 305 et seq. The last, the sixth Karmagrantha, consists of some 70 Gathas, which have been taken from Drstivada by Candramahattara 2. The most important commentary appears to be that by Malayagiri 3 (according to Kielhorn in the  12th century A.D.), 4 which in the edition employed is added to the text; here the number of the gathas is 75. Peterson, Report 1883, Appendix I, p.27, mentions a manuscript, with a commentary by Devendrasuri, which comprises 77 Gathas: "Candramahattaracarya‑krtagatha 70 tatra praksiptagathakarta Devendracaryah". In the Fourth Report (1886‑1892) p.57, he mentions another manuscript which contains 89 Gathas and makes the following comment: "At the end of the Saptatika Devendra states that that tract is the work of Candramahattara to which he has himself added 19 gathas, bringing the total number up to 89." According to that, then, the original text must have contained 70 Gathas, and the one used by Malayagiri was already enlarged by additions. In the Prakaranaratnakara IV, pp.773 et. seq., the sixth Karmagrantha is also furnished with a commentary. The number of the Gathas therein has been increased by additions to 93. The variation in the number of the verses shows that this book has been the object of extensive activity on the part of commentators, so that it is to be supposed that divergence between the views of different teachers has taken in it particularly acute forms. To me the commentary of Malayagiri has alone been accessible, for which reason deviations from the doctrine, that may have been expounded in his commentary by Devendra, might have been unavoidable. The difference  between the views of the two masters cannot, however, have been  of far‑reaching consequence, because the variations existing between the first five Karmagranthas, explained by Devendra, and the sixth, commented upon by Malayagiri are altogether of insignificant importance.

 

The Pancasamgraha

The Pancasamgraha contains a summary of the entire karman doctrine. It consists of a great number of Prakrit‑Gathas, which emanate from Candrarsi (Candramahattara)‑i.e., from the author of the  Gathas  of the sixth Karmagrantha. Its name, Pancasamgraha "Epitome of Five Things", the book owes either to the circumstance that is has been compiled from five older books: Sataka, Saptatika, Kasayaprabhrta, Satkarma and Prakrti (p.3) 1* or to the five dvaras, of which it treats, namely yogopayogamargana, bandhakah, baddhavyam, bandhahetavah, and bandhavidhayah (p.5). It was commented upon by Malayagiri.

 

The Karmaprakrti

The Karmaprakrti gives, in 475 Gathas, the detailed account of a portion of the karman doctrine. It was compiled by Sivasarmasuri, who indicates as his source the chapter of the Agrayaniyapurva of the Drstivada called "Karmaprakrti". The KP has often been commented upon. The most celebrated commentary is the Tika by Malayagiri; besides that, there exist a Vrtti by Yasovijaya, who lived in the 17th century, an anonymous Curni, and a Tippana by Nemicandra.2

 

The relations of the karman works to one another and to other books of Jain literature are still in need of thorough examination, which, is must be admitted, can only be made possible when other works of this description will yet have been published. That Devendra was acquainted with the Karmaprakrti and the Pancasamgraha is been from Kg. II 144a:

"Devendrasurina likhitam karmaprakrti‑pancasamgraha‑brhacchataka‑disastrebhyah". Concerning his dependence on  the commentaries of Malayagiri nothing for the moment can be said: there are, however, in many different places literal reminiscences of the writing of the latter; but as both have made use of still older authors, it cannot be decided to what extent he leans upon him, or how far both go back to a common source.

 

Candramahattara and Sivasarman indicate as their source the twelfth Anga, the Drstivada, 3 an indication which is also found in other parts of the Jain literature 1*. As the Purvas are said to have been, partially at least, in existence up till the year 1000 after Vira 2, the karman doctrine must have been, at the latest, completely developed at that time. The question now arises, whether this very complicated doctrine had already existed before that time or not, i.e. whether it is the product of a comparatively recent speculation, or had been already in its essential points contained in the sacred writings. A final judgment regarding this can only be arrived at through a comparison of the ideas developed in the karman works with those of the entire cannon. I have not made such an examination. Nevertheless, as far as I could see, the most important karman doctrines are contained actually in the Siddhanta, of which any one can easily convince himself, if he but superficially consults the Sthananga‑Sutra, Bhagavati Sutra, Aupapatika‑Sutra 3 and  Uttaradhyayana‑Sutra 4. Many of the passages concerning karman appearing in these works contain only generalities; many, however give so many details that through them we may arrive at the result that already at the time of the canon the karman was developed in a high degree. That not only the principal points but many details of the karman theory are contained in the Angas and Upangas 5 is proved by the numerous passages from the sacred writings which are quoted by the commentators and which often refer to quite things.

 

Further, the fact that the karman writings go beyond that which has been laid down in the canon, but do not contradict it, follows already from the reason that they have not invoked upon themselves the reproach of heterodoxy. For, with a religious community that zealously guards the purity of their doctrine, as do the Jains, any important deviation would  not have remained unreproved. As with the canon, so also all karman works are in accord in all things of prime importance; in some details, however, wherein the sacred writing does not make any distinct declaration and leaves free rein to speculation, they differ from one another to the extent that in some details two or more views are exposed. There are two schools in particular who are opposing one another on many by‑issue 1: the Agamikas and the karmagranthikas. The former, the chief exponent of whom is Malayagiri, derive their ideas from a tradition which is dependent upon the Purvas. The  Karmagranthikas and their spokesman Devendrasuri, however, lean on the authority of older works on the karman, portions of which are even to‑day  in existence in Jain monastic libraries, but  about which, nevertheless, nothing distinct is as yet known. For this attempt at a first complete, although not exhaustive, account of the karman doctrine, works of the two schools have been used. This could be done without hesitation, because the differences between the two schools are quite unimportant in regard to the system as a whole, and in a preponderating majority are of an altogether trifling nature; in their proper place there  will be pointed out the most conspicuous of these differences.

 

The leading works, on which this account is based are the six Karmagranthas, in addition to which the two other works have been consulted for comparison and for supplementary material; the ideas reproduced by us are therefore, within certain limitations, practically in their entirety of Devendrasuri. The Karmagranthas recommended themselves before all other writings in so far as they demonstrate the karman doctrine in the clearest manner, and because of their most methodical arrangement. For similar reasons they appear to be those most highly estimated by the present‑day Jains, as is proved by their frequent occurrence in manuscripts and in translations into the vernacular languages.

 

In order to afford the uninitiated an insight also into the essential principles and arrangement of the Karmagranthas, I append the following observations relating to them, commencing with a Survey of the contents of the Karmagranthas.2 

 

The contents of first volume of

the Karmagranthas.

 

I. KARMAVIPAKA (Kammavivaga).

1. Praise, list of contents, explanations and proofs of the k (1 a); 2. the k is fourfold, according to prakrti, sthiti, rasa, pradesa (3 a); 3. the 8 karma‑prakrtis, their sequence is logical (3 b); 4‑9 detailed explanation of jnanavarana‑k (5a); 9‑12. of darsanavarana‑k (21b); 12‑13. of vedaniya‑k (23 b); 13‑22, of mohaniya‑k (24 a); 23 of ayus‑k (31 b) ; 23‑50 of nama‑k (31 b); 51. of gotra‑k (48 a); 51. 52. of antaraya‑k. (48 b) ; 53‑60, the ethical conduct as cause of the binding of ks. (49 b); 60 colophon (53b).

 

II.  KARMASTAVA (KAMMATTHAVA).

1. Praise, list of contents (55 a); 2. explanation of the 14 gunasthanas (56 a); 3‑12. representation of the different prakrtis which are possible in bandha in the gunasthanas. (63a); 13‑23. the same in udaya (69a); 24. the same in udirana (74a); 25‑34. the same in satta (75a); 34. colophon (78b).

 

III.  BANDHASVAMITVA (BANDHASAMITTA).

1. Praise, list of content (80a); 2‑3. summary of prakrtis which are not bound (81a); 4‑24. what prakrtis are bound in the 14 margasthanas (81b); 24 colophon (91a).

 

IV.  SADASITIKA (SADASHGA)

1. Praise, list of contents (92a); 2. explanation of the jivasthanas (95b); 3. gunasthanas in jivasthanas (96b); 4‑5. yogas in jivasthanas (98b); 6. upayogas in jivasthanas (100a); 7 lesyas in jivasthanas (101b); 7‑8. bandha, udaya, udirana, satta in jivasthanas (102a); 9‑14 detailed explanation of the marganasthanas (104b); 14‑18. jivasthanas and marganasthanas (115b); 19‑23. gunasthanas and jivasthanas (119b);  24‑29. yogas and marganasthanas (123a); 30‑34. upayogas and marganasthanas (133b); 35. another view on the relation of yogas, upayogas, jivasthanas, gunasthanas (135b); 36‑37. lesyas and marganasthanas (136b); 37‑44. alpabahutva of the marganasthanas (137a); 45. jivasthanas in gunasthanas (145b); 46‑47. yogas in gunasthanas (146a); 48. upayogas in gunasthanas (147a); 49. another view on the same subject (147b); 50 lesyas in gunasthanas (148b); 50‑58. the causes of bandha (148b); 59‑62. bandha, udaya, satta, udirana in gunasthanas (152b); 62‑63, alpabahutva of the different beings in the gunasthanas (154a); 64‑68. the states of the soul (154b); 69 the states in the karmans and ajivas (157b); 70 the states in the gunasthanas (160b); 71‑86. explanation of samkhyata, asamkhyata, ananta (163b); 86. colophon (175b).

 

The contents of second volume of

the Karmagranthas.

 

V.  SATAKA (SAYAGA)

1. Praise, list of contents (1b); 2‑9. prakrtis with dhruva and  adhruva bandha, udaya, satta (3a); 10‑12. the latter in the gunasthanas (8a); 13‑14. sarva‑desa and a‑ghatins (10a); 15‑17. punya and papa‑prakrtis (12b); 18‑19. paravartamana and apo prakrtis (14a).

 

Prakrti‑bandha: 22‑25. bhuyaskara‑, alpatara, avasthika‑ and avaktavya‑bandha (16b).

 

Sthiti‑bandha: 26‑27. maximum‑ and minimum‑duration of the mula‑prakrtis (22b); 28‑34. maximum‑duration of the uttara‑prakrtis (24a); 35‑39. minimum‑duration of them (28a); 40‑41. explanation of ksullakabhava (32b); 42‑44. who binds the maximum‑sthiti of the different prakrtis? (33a); 44‑45. who binds the minimum sthiti? (36a); 46‑47. utkrsta‑, anutkrsta‑, jaghanya‑, and ajaghanya bandha and sadi‑, dhruva‑, adhruva bandha (37b); 48. sthiti bandha in the gunasthanas (39a); 49‑51. alpabahutva of the sthiti‑bandha of the different jiva‑species (40a); 52, pleasant and unpleasant sthiti‑bandha and its causes (42a); 53‑55. yoga; sthiti‑, and adhya‑vasaya‑sthanas (43b); 56‑62, abandha and satata‑bandha (47b).

 

Anubhaga‑bandha: 63. species of rasa (53b); 64. degrees of it (54a); 65. pleasant and unpleasant rasa (55a); 66‑68. who binds maximum‑rasa of the different prakrtis? (57a); 69‑73 who binds the minimum‑rasa? (59b); 74‑75. utkrsta‑, anutkrsta‑, jaghanya‑, ajaghanya‑bandha and sadi‑, dhruva, anadi‑, adhruva bandha (64b),

Pradesa‑bandha: 75‑77. grahana and agrahana‑varganas (68b); 78‑79. what is the constitution of the matter which the jiva assimilates and how is the assimilation done? (72a); 79‑81. the distribution of matter between the prakrtis (74a); 82‑83. the gunasrenis (79b); 84. antarala of the gunasthanas (81b); 85‑88 explanation of palyopama and pudgalaparavarta (83a); 89‑92. who has maximum‑pradesa‑bandha of the different prakrtis? (89a); 93. who has minimum‑pradesa‑bandha? (93b); 94. utkrsta‑, anutkrsta‑, jaghanya‑, ajaghanya‑bandha and sadi‑, anadi‑, dhruva‑, adhruva bandha (95a); 95‑97. yoga‑ and adhyavasaya‑sthanas (98b).

 

98. Upasama‑sreni (105a); 99‑100. ksapaka‑sreni (111b); 100. colophon (113a).

 

VI. SAPTATIKA (SATTARIYA).

1. List of contents (115b); 2. bandha‑, udaya‑, satta‑, mula‑prakrti‑sthanas (116a); 3‑5. their samvedha in guna‑ and jiva‑sthanas (118b); 6. explanation of uttara‑prakrtis (120b); 7. bandha‑, udaya‑ satta‑sthanas of the uttara‑prakrtis of jnanavarana,‑ and antaraya‑k. (127b); 8‑9. of darsanavarana (128a); 10 of vedaniya, ayus, gotra (130a); 11‑24 of mohaniya (132a); 25‑33 of naman (143a); 34‑39. the same in the jivasthanas (158b); 40‑52. in gunasthanas (168b); 53‑55. in marganasthanas (189b); 56‑58. udirana (194b); 59‑63. bandha in gunasthanas (195b); 64. bandha in gatis (197b); 65. upasama‑sreni (198a). 66‑72. ksapaka‑sreni (205b); 73. salvation (212b); 74‑75. epilogue (213a).

 

The task of the Karmagranthas is to expose completely a dogma but not to prove it. That is why we find in them a full enumeration of the different kinds of the karman, of the states of the soul, the degrees of their development, etc. but we do not hear why any of this is thus and not otherwise. I am aware of one passage only wherein the author deliberately raises the question concerning the cause. It is contained in Kgs. II., 75 a; herein the author raises an objection as to how it is possible that the particle of matter seized in a moment by the soul is capable of transforming itself into the number of particles necessary for the formation of the various species of the karman, whereupon he replies that it is performed through the mysterious power of the soul, of which we may not make to ourselves any idea, and through the peculiar quality of the matter itself. It may be observed, he argues, that matter on which no spiritual force is working, is changing into clouds and rainbows; why, then, could not matter with which a jiva is in connection be changed into different kinds of karman? All further discussion is cut off by an energetic "alam vistarena". The disregard of national argumentation here shown is justified in so far as Jainism does not pretend to have attained its doctrines by human rational means. It is not through the limited comprehension of an average man that Jainism arrives at its view‑point of the world, but by revelation, or better, by that which an omniscient man, a kevalin, has communicated. Everything that such a Master, adorned with 18 characteristics 2, proclaims concerning world and life is accepted unconditionally as Truth that nothing can shake. All Jain scriptures, therefore, only undertake to recapitulate the utterances of such a man, to explain them, and, if necessary, to supplement them. This supplementing is done by the restricted agency of the human understanding; the interpreters are consequently fully aware of their own imperfection, and point out, over and over again, that they are liable to err, for the reason that the Truth is only revealed to the omniscient ones,‑never‑the less, this fact in no way deters them from opposing people who arrive at other conclusions.

 

In working up the material I have been governed by the desire to be as concise as possible. I have discarded all that is not in direct connection with the subject, that is to say, all the discursive matter which is interwoven in the text and the commentaries. Further, I have not taken into consideration all the views of the different teachers excepting only opinions expressed in the text itself. Although several things have been abbreviated or omitted, I hope that nothing of importance has been lost to view. If in many instances and in manifold regard the text provided too much for our necessities, on the other hand, in many respects, it supplied too little. In order to present a  general view of the world of ideas connected with the karman doctrine, I felt myself compelled to supplement the missing points by drawing upon other works, chiefly the Tattvarthadhigamasutra and the Lokaprkasa. This applies especially to the introduction and to chapters V., VI. 2, VII. 1, which, although probably affording scarcely anything new to the specialist in Jain Philosophy, will not be unacceptable to other readers.

 

Of the books published in European languages, two only have been of prominent use to me. The first is the series of lectures on Karman Philosophy, delivered by the late Mr. Virchand R. Gandhi in  London, and which were subsequently published from notes made by Mr. H.Warren. This excellent work would undoubtedly have become an exhaustive manual had Gandhi not been overtaken by death before its completion. Thus his work remains a torso, and treats of a small part only of the karman system proper, namely the doctrine of the karmaprakrtis and the first five gunasthanas; but notwithstanding its incomplete form, it has been of great value to me. The other work to which I have referred is Professor H. Jacobi's German translation of the Tattvarthadhigama‑Sutra, the only book on Jain dogmatics hitherto translated into a European languages. The rendering of numerous termini technici is due to it, and to it likewise I owe many observations contributing essentially to an understanding of the subject.

 

In conclusion, I feel myself bound to acknowledge the kindly aid and information supplied to me by those whose names follow: Mr. Hemchand Amerchand (Bombay), Dr. A. Guerinot (Paris), Jagmandar Lal Jaini, M.A.2 (Bankripore), Dr. Willbald Kirfel (Bonn), Pandit F.K.Lalan (Bombay), Vakil Keshavlal P. Mody, B.A., LL.B 3 (Ahmedabad), Dr. Walther Schubring (Berlin), Dr. F.W. Thomas (London) and Mr. Herbert Warren (London).

 

I must reserve till the last my special expression of gratitude to my revered teacher, the celebrated Jaindarsanadivakara, Herr Geheimrat Professor Dr. Jacobi, who inspired me to undertake this work and who, by his advise and encouragement, has aided me in its accomplishment.

 

Dr. HELMUTH VON GLASENAPP.

 

 

PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH EDITION by

Dr. Helmuth von Glasenapp

 

The original German edition 1 of the present work, for which in July, 1914, the degree old Doctor of Philosophy was conferred upon me by the University of Bonn, appeared in print in May, 1915 (published by Otto Harrassowiz, Leipzig). That small edition was completely sold out in 1919; a new issue is not to be expected because of the high cost of printing at the present time. It has given me great pleasure, therefore, that through the munificence of Mr. Jivanlal Pannalal, Bombay, I am in the position to make my work accessible to the friends and admirers of Jain Philosophy in an English edition. The text of the English translation is, in general, a reproduction of the German original; only here and there I considered slight alterations and improvements to be necessary. From books that have appeared since the publication of the German edition I have been able to use only the following:

Jagmanderlal Jaini, M.A., Outlines of Jainism, Cambridge, 1916. Dr. W.Kirfel, Die Kosmographie der Inder, Bonn, 1920.

 

Dr. Walther Schubring, Das Mahanisha‑Sutta, Berlin, 1918. Mrs. Sinclair Stevenson, The Heart of Jainism, Oxford, 1915.

 

I have not been able to take advantage of works published since 1914 in India, because they are not accessible to me.

 

The difficulty which besets a European in penetrating into an intricate Indian philosophical system may have been the cause of many a detail requiring supplementary correction. I would feel deeply obliged to Jain scholars if they would kindly communicate to me remarks which serve the enlargement of the knowledge of Jain Philosophy, so that I can utilize them in my further studies in this field, so little explored hitherto.

 

To the Rev. Dr. Robert Zimmermann, S.J., Professor of Sanskrit, St.Xavier's College, Bombay, I am thankful for his friendly assistance in the publication of the English edition; to Mr. G. Barry Gifford for the trouble undergone and zeal shown in undertaking the difficult task of translating this work.

 

17 Bendler Strasse,

Berlin,                                   Dr. HELMUTH VON GLASENAPP

February, 1921                      Privatdocent an der Universitat Berlin

 

 

TRANSLATOR'S NOTE

 

The "jiva" is referred to throughout in the masculine gender for  the sake of clearness, following the Sanskrit gender of the word.

 

 

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

 

Aup.      =    Aupapatikasutra (Leumann).

Bh.       =    Bhagavati (Weber).

Gandhi    =    Gandhi, Karma‑Philosophy.

JS.       =    Jaina Sutras (Jacobi).

k.        =    Karman.

Kg.       =    Karmagrantha.

KP.       =    Karmaprakrti.

Lp.       =    Lokaprakasa.

Ps.       =    Pancasamgraha.

Tattv.   =   Tattvarthadhigamasutra u. Jacobi's ubersetzung derselben.

Utt.      =    Uttaradhyayanasutra.

J.R.A.S.  =    Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society.

ZDMG.   =  Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlaendischen Gesellschaft (Journal of the German Oriental  Society).

 

For the complete titles of the works quoted, see below.

Kgs. are quoted according to volume (I,II) and leaf, KP. according to leaf, Ps. according to page, Lp. and Tattv. according to Chapter and verse.

 

 

BOOKS CONSULTED.

 

TEXTS.

Karmagrantha, Sri‑Devendrasuriviracita‑svopajna‑tikayukta. vol.1. 2. Bhavnagar, Sri‑Jaina‑dharma‑prasaraka sabha. Vikrama Samvat 1966‑1968.

 

Karmaprakrti, Sri‑Sivasama‑pada‑pranita Sri‑Malayagiri‑viracita‑tita‑tika‑samyukta. Bhavnagar, Sri‑Jaina‑dharma‑prasaraka sabha. Vikrama Samvat 1969. (Sheth Devechand Lalbhai Jain Pustakodhar Fund Series. Nr. 17).

 

Pancasamgraha. Mulakartta Sri‑Candramahattara, tikakara Sri‑Malaya‑giriji, ed. by Pandita Sravaka Hiralala Hamsaraja Jamnagar. Samvat 1966. 4. Vols.

 

Aupapatikasutra erstes. Upanga der Jaina, I Teil Einleitung. Text und Glossar. Von E. Leumann, Leipzig 1883.

 

Jivaviyara de Santisuri, ed Guerinot, Journal Asiatique 1902.

 

Lokaprakasa, Kartta Sri‑Vinayavijayaji Upadhyayaji, ed. Pandita Sravaka

Hiralala Hamsaraja Jamnagar, Samvat 1967. 3 Vols.

 

Sarvadarsanasamagraha of Madhavacarya ed. Apte, Poona 1906 A.D.

 

Tattvarthadhigamasutra, Srimad‑Umasvatina racitam, svakrtabhasyasahitam, ed. keshavlal Premchand Mody. (Bibl. Indica). Calcutta 1903.

 

TREATISES AND TRANSLATIONS.

Buhler, Georg. On the Indian Sect to the Jainas, translated from the German. Edited with an Outline of Jains Mythology by Jas. Burgess. London 1903.

 

Charpentier Jarl. The Lesya‑theory of the Jainas and Ajivikas.

 

Colebrooke H.T. Essays on the Religion and Philosophy of the Hindus. Leipzig 1858.

 

Gandhi, Virchand R. The Jain Philosophy. Bombay 1911.

 

Gandhi, Virchand R. The Karma Philosophy. Bombay 1913.

 

Guerinot, A. La doctrine dessetres vivants dans la religion Jaina (Rev. de Phistoire des Religions, 47. Paris 1903).

 

Jacobi, H. Atomic theory (Indian). Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics. Vol. 2, p. 199. Edinburg 1909.

 

Jacobi, H. Eine Jaina‑Dogmatik. Umasvati's Tattvarthadhigama‑Sutra ubersetzt und erlautert. ZDMG 60 (1906) 287 ff., 512 ff. (auch als Sonderabdruck erschienen). Leipzig 1906.

 

Jacobi, H. Jaina Sutras, translated from Prakrit. 2 Vols. (sacred Books of the East, Vols. 22, 45). Oxford 1884, 1895.

 

Jacobi, H. Jainism. Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, vol. 7, 472.

 

Jacobi, H. The Metaphysics and Ethics of the Jainas. Trans. of the Congress for the History of Religion, Oxford 1908. II, 60.

 

Jaini, Rickhab Dass. An Insight into Jainism. Meerut (o.Jahr.).

 

Jhaveri, Hirachand Liladhar. The First Principles of Jain Philosophy. London 1910.

 

Schrader, F.Ott. Uber den Stand der indischen Philosophic zur Zeit Mahaviras und Budhas. Strassburg 1902.

 

Stevenson, Mrs.Sinclair. Notes on Modern Jainism. Oxford 1910.

 

Warren, Herbert Jainism, in Western Garb, as a solution to life's great problems. Madras 1912.

 

Weber, Albrecht. Uber die heiligen Schriften der Jaina. Ind. Studien 16,17. Leipzig 1883 f.

 

Weber, Albrecht. Fragment of Bhagavati. Berlin 1866‑67.

 

Wilson, H.H. A Sketch of the Religious Sects of the Hindus. (Works ed. Rost, vol. 1). London 1862.

 

 

INTRODUCTION

 

According to the doctrine of the Jains, the world is everlasting and imperishable, created by no God and governed by no Higher Being. It is subject only to its own laws (lokasthiti) and, in spite of the change undergone by its component parts, remains in its essential character unchanged. It is of indeterminable, although limited, dimensions. In shape it is comparable to a symmetrically built man, in whose lower extremities are to be found the hells, whose central portion of the body encloses the animal and the human world, and whose breast, neck and head are composed of the heavens of the gods. Above the world of the gods, to be likened unto a lens, concave below and convex above, is the dwelling‑seat of the blessed. The entire world is surrounded by dense layers of air and water. Beyond this is the non‑world, the absolutely empty space.

 

The world consists of five everlasting, imperishable substances(dravya) which, through their modifications and the relation in which they stand towards one another, produce the multifarious world processes. These substances are the following:

 

1.      Akasa, Space. It is the receptacle of all things, but in itself is contained in Loathing. Before all dravyas it is distinguishable as being also present‑as alokakasa‑in the non‑world, whereas the others exist only in the loka. It is composed of an infinite number of space‑points (pradesa), which consequently represent the smallest space‑units.

 

2.      Dharma, Motion. It is a kind of ether, which serves as the medium for movement. In itself it produces no local change, but it is the indispensable preliminary condition for it, as water is for the swimming of a fish.

 

3.      Adharma is the medium for rest, the concomitant cause of the inertia of a thing; like dharma, it pervades the cosmos and comprises an innumerable quantity of space‑points.

 

4.      Pudgala, Matter. This exists in an infinite number of the most minute indivisible atoms (paramanu). Each one of these possesses touch, taste, smell and color, and can unite itself, after certain laws, with another or several more, till they reach an aggregate (skandha), and by that means produce the heterogeneous phenomena of the empiric world. The aggregate can occupy a greater or smaller number of space‑points, the atom only one. Matter is found in a gross (sthula) and in a subtle (suksma) condition. Numerous pudgalas in a subtle state occupy the space of a gross one. The gross bodies alone are impenetrable; the subtle ones are not so (Tattv. V. 3c.).

 

5.      Jiva, the Soul. The jiva is distinguished from all other substances mentioned above in that it possesses consciousness and intelligence. There are innumerable souls who, in fact, can influence one another, but who, according to their nature, are quite independent from one another and not connected in some higher unity (Brahman). Every jiva possesses infinite qualities (guna). For our purpose, only the following eight are of interest:

1)      The faculty of omniscience (kevala‑jnana).

2)      The faculty of absolute undifferentiated cognition (Kevala‑darsana).

3)      The superiority over joy and grief (avyabadha).

4)      The possession of complete religious truth (samyaktva) and irreproachable moral conduct (carita).

5)      The possession of eternal life (aksayathiti).

6)      Complete formlessness (amurtatva).

7)      Complete equality in rank with other jivas.

8)      Unrestricted energy (virya).

 

All these attributes belong by nature to every soul. In the world, however, comparatively only few souls exist in which they develop to perfection. On the other hand, the majority of all living beings has only restricted knowledge and energy, adheres to false metaphysical doctrine and neglects the laws of morality, experiences joy and grief, possesses the manifold individual qualities, and has only a temporal limited existence. The question as to how it happens that the peculiarities of the jiva are so changed into their contrary, is answered by Jainism in the following manner: All the eight gunas can become apparent if the jiva from all external influences. This, however, can only be the case with few souls. Most of them are not pure, but are infected by something foreign which veils their natural faculties, i.e. hinders them from entering into appearance. This foreign element is the Karman does not here mean "deed, work", nor invisible, mystical force (adrsta), but a complexes of very fine matter, imperceptible to the senses, which enters into the soul and causes great changes in it. The karman, then, is something material (karmapaudgalam), which produces in the soul certain conditions, even as a medical pill which, when introduced into the body, produces therein manifold effects.

 

The fine matter which can become karman, fills the entire cosmos. Through the vibration of the particles of the soul, which must necessarily follow when the soul puts into motion the material substrata of its activity, the pudgalas are attracted and are drawn to unite themselves to it; they become karman and enter into union with a jiva, more intimate than that between milk and water, than between fire and an iron ball. The matter once entered into the soul separates itself into a greater number of particles, the karma‑prakrtis, with varying effects. Their number and character are conditional upon the conduct of the jiva; if this is good, the jiva assimilates good karman species, he "binds" good karman; when bad he binds bad karman. The karman may remain latent in the soul for a time without entering into appearance; but when the right moment arrives it becomes apparent, it realizes itself. The duration and intensity of the effect of a karman depends upon the state of mind (adhyavasaya) at the moment of the assimilation. When its efficacy expires it becomes extinguished.

 

The soul is eternally infected by matter; its union with the karman has no beginning and, as every moment it is gathering new matter, it has, in the natural course of things, no ending. The deliverance of the soul from the karman is, therefore, only possible by artificial means. Through a series of special processes the jiva must hinder the absorption of new karman and eliminate the karman already accumulated before they come to realization. If, through the eradication of the physical cause which predisposes him to assimilate certain karman, he succeeds in restricting and in the end totally hindering the binding of  new karman, as well we, through the methodical subjugation of the senses, in annihilating the potential karman already in existence, he will become free from all karman. Then all obstacles which impede the development of his true nature are automatically overcome; released from the power of the karman, he can undisturbedly make manifest his own innate capabilities.

 

The karman doctrine, which in the foregoing has been only briefly sketched, has been formed by Jainism into a remarkable system, accurately worked out in its most minute details. To represent this is my task in the following chapters. We shall at first show the different karmans in themselves and in themselves and in their relation to one another; further on, the conditions which arise in the soul under the influence of the karmans; then , the causes which produce the formation of certain karmans; and, finally, the way that leads to release from them.

 

THE KARMAN IN ITSELF

The Species of the Karman           

The Duration of the Karman         

The Intensity of the Karman         

The Quality of the Pradesas of the Karman

 

The atoms which have become karman in the soul can be contemnplated from 4 points of view:

1)      according to the manner of their effect (prakrti),

2)      according to the duration of their effect (sthiti),

3)      according to the intensity of their effect (rasa), and

4)      according to their quantity, i.e. according to the number of their pradesas.

 

Even as an article of confectionery (modaka), which is composed of a substance that cures wind in the body through its natural quality annihilates the wind‑ a sweetmeat composed of a substance that cures the bile, annihilates the bile‑ a sweetmeat composed of material that destroys phlegm, annihilates phlegm‑ so the pudgalas which have become jnanavarana‑karman veil the knowledge, those changed into caritra‑mohaniya‑karman disturb the right conduct, etc. Even as the effect of one modaka is restricted to one day, of another to two days, and so forth, so the duration of one karman is 30 sagaropamakotikotis, that of another is 70, and so forth. Even as this pill has a sweet, that a still sweeter taste, so the one karman works with a lesser, the other with a greater intensity. And, finally, even as one pill measures 1 prakrti, or 2 prakrti, according to the number of grains that composite, so also a karman‑particle has a greater or less dimension according to whether it contains more or less pradesas 1.

 

THE SPECIES OF THE KARMAN

 

There are 8 chief or fundamental species (mula‑prakrti) of the karman, namely:

1.      jnanavarana‑k, the k which obscures knowledge,

2.      darsanavarana‑k, the k which obscures undifferentiated cognition,

3.      vedaniya‑k, the k which produces the feeling of joy and brief,

4.      mohaniya‑k, the k which obstructs belief and conduct,

5.      ayus‑k, the k which determines the duration of life,

6.      nama‑k, the k which gives the various factors of individuality,

7.      gotra‑k, the k which destines family surroundings,

8.      antaraya‑k, the k which hinders the jiva in his capability of resolution and enjoyment.

 

Each of these mula‑prakrtis is divided into a number of uttara‑prakrtis, sub‑species. The latter can, on their part, be separated into yet smaller sub‑divisions, so that the entire number of the karmans is exceedingly large. For the system, however, only the 8 mula and the 148 uttara‑prakrtis are of importance; I can therefore restrict myself to presenting a summary of these.

 

JNANAVARANA‑KARMAN

The jnanavarana‑k obscures the knowledge peculiar to the soul, i.e. it hinder the jiva from recognizing a thing with its individual attributes. It is divided into 5 uttara‑prakrtis, according to the 5 kinds of knowledge:

 

1.      mati‑jnanavarana‑k which causes the obscuration of the knowledge,  transmitted through the senses,

2.      sruta‑jnanavarana‑k which produces the obscuration of knowledge acquired by interpreting signs (i.e. words, writings, gestures),

3.      avadhi‑jnanavarana‑k which hinders transcendental knowledge of material things,

4.      manahparyaya‑jnanavarana‑k which hinders transcendental knowledge of the thoughts of others,

5.      kevala‑jnanavarana‑k which obscures the omniscience inherent in the jiva by natural disposition.

 

Of these, the last mentioned karman hinders omniscience altogether; the four others do not always involve, through their realization, a complete destruction of the corresponding faculties of knowledge, but often produce only greater or less disturbances.

 

DARSANAVARANA‑KARMAN

The word darsana has two different meanings in Jain Philosophy. Firstly it means: "opinion, doctrine, philosophical system", and samyag‑darsana then has the signification "the fight view, the true belief". But, secondly, the word darsana has also the meaning "the recognition of a thing in its general outlines or in its notional generality." (Jacobi ad Tattv. 1.1) i.e. formaliter indistinct knowledge. Here the darsana mentioned in the second place is dealt with: for the sake of brevity and for lack of a better word, we translate it by "undifferentiated cognition". According to the 4 species of undifferentiated cognition1 there are 4 species of the darsanavarana‑karman, namely:

1.      caksur‑darsanavarana‑k which produces the obscuration of the darsana conditional upon the eye,

2.      acaksur‑darsanavarana‑k which causes the obscuration of the undifferentiated  cognition, conditional upon the other senses and the organ of thinking,

3.      avadhi‑darsanavarana‑k which causes the obscuration of the transcendental undifferentiated cognition of material things,

4.      kevala‑darsanavarana‑k which hinder the absolute undifferentiated cognition (the counterpart of the omniscience).

 

The last mentioned k hinders completely; the three others produce under certain circumstances only a disturbance of the respective cognition‑faculties.

 

In addition to these 4 darsanavarana‑ks come still 5 others which produce physio‑psychological conditions in which the sense‑organs are not active, and which, therefore, exclude all possibility of perception. These are the 5 nidra‑ks, "sleep‑ks", namely:

 

1.      nidra‑k which produces a light, pleasant slumber, out of which the sleeper is already aroused by the clicking of finger‑nails.

 

2.      nidranidra‑k which produces a deep slumber, out of which the sleeper can only be awakened by being shaken violently,

 

3.      pracala‑k which sitting or standing upright (cf. Desi‑Kosa VI, 6).

 

4.      pracalapracala‑k which produces an exceedingly intensive sleep, that overcomes a person while walking,

 

5.      styanagrddhi‑(styanarddhi‑)k which causes somnambulism, acting an unconscious state.

 

VEDANIYA‑KARMAN

The vedaniya‑k causes the feeling of pain and pleasure. It has, therefore, 2 sub‑species:

 

1.      sata‑vedaniya‑k which causes a feeling of pleasure, created, e.g. by licking something sweet,

2.      asata‑vedaniya‑k which causes the feeling of pain, such as is produced, e.g. if one is hurt by a sword.

 

With gods and men the sata‑vedaniya is predominant, although, also with the former at the time of the downfall from the celestial world, and with the latter through cold and heat, death and accident, pain can be produced. Animals and infernal beings experience chiefly the asata‑vedaniya, although, also, at the birth of a Jina or on a similar occasion, they can experience a feeling of pleasure.

 

MOHANIYA‑KARMAN.

The mohaniya‑k obstructs true faith and right conduct. It is therefore separated into 2 main divisions: disturbance of faith and disturbance of conduct.

 

Darsana‑mohaniya‑karman.

The darsana‑mohaniya‑k causes a disturbance of the knowledge of the religious truth inherent in the jiva by natural disposition. (Here "darsana" is employed in another sense than in its application as darsanavarana, see p.7). According as to whether the disturbance is an absolute or a partial one, 3 kinds of this k are to be distinguished:

1.      mithyatva‑k. This causes complete unbelief or heterodoxy. If it realize itself, the jiva does not believe in the truths as proclaimed by Mahavira; he believes false prophets to be saints and enjoins false doctrines.

 

2.      samyagmithyatva‑(misra)k. This produces a mixed belief, i.e., If it operates the soul waves to and for betwixt true  and false; it is  indifferent to the religion of the Jina and has no predilection for, nor hatred against it.

 

3.      samyaktva‑k. This induces the correct belief. This samyaktva  is, however, not the correct faith in its completeness, but  only in a preliminary degree; it is a so‑called mithyatva, from which the mithyatva‑quality has been abstracted a mithyatva free from poison (Kg. I.35a, 113a). The true belief in its perfection is only obtained, when the atoms of the  samyaktva‑mohaniya‑k have disappeared, even as milk which is  covered by quite clear water only becomes perfectly pure  after the water has been poured off.

 

caritra‑mohaniya‑karman.

The caritra‑mohaniya‑k disturbs the right conduct possessed innately by the jiva; it hinders the soul from acting according to the religious prescriptions. The disturbance of the conduct is produced through the 16 passions (kasaya), the 6 non‑passions (nokasaya) and the 3 sexes (veda).

 

A) The kasayas (passions) are:

1)      krodha, anger,                    

2)      maya, deceitfulness,

3)      mana, pride,                      

4)      lobha, greed.

 

Each of these is separated into 4 sub‑divisions, according to the intensity of their manifestation. Each passion is, there

 

I.        anantanubandhin "of life‑long duration". It then completely  hinders belief and conduct.

II.     apratyakhyanavarana "hindering non‑renunciation". It makes impossible every renunciation, but allows the existence of true belief. It lasts for one year.

III.   pratyakhyanavarana "hindering renunciation". It hinders the  beginning of complete self‑discipline, but does not prevent the existence  of true belief and partial self‑discipline (desavirati). Its effect lasts  for 4 months.

IV.  samjvalana "flaming up". It allows complete self‑discipline,  yet works against the attainment of complete right conduct  (yathakhyata caritra). It lasts a fortnight.

 

The degrees of strength of the kasayas are illustrated by examples. The 4 species of anger are to be likened unto a line drawn in stone, in earth, in dust and in water. The first can only be removed with great effort, each following one always more easily. Likewise also, the life‑long enduring anger is only combated in its effect with exceeding strength and difficulty, whist the effect of the three remaining species accordingly diminishes in power and can, therefore, also more easily be destroyed. The degrees of pride are to be likened unto a pillar of stone, a bone, a piece of wood, and the liana of a Dalbergia ougeinensis; the inflexibility correspondingly decreases. The species of deceitfulness are to be compared to a bamboo‑root, the horn of a ram, the urine of a cow, and a piece of wood. The crookedness of each of these is removed more easily than in the one preceding it. (The zig‑zag line of the cow's urine disappears through the influence of wind and weather.) The degrees of greed correspond to scarlet color, to greater or smaller dirt, and to a spot of turmeric, which soil a garment: the scarlet is hardly removable, the dirt with more or less trouble, and the spot of turmeric can be removed with ease.

 

B) The nokasayas (non‑passions) are:

1)      hasya, laughing, joking. firmed prejudicial disliking.

2)      rati, improper and confirmed prejudicial liking.     

3)      arati, improper and conduct

4)      soka, sorrow.

5)      bhaya, fear.

6)      jugupsa, disgust.

 

All these 6 emotions are caritra‑mohaniyas, because the soul which is subjected to them, is hindered through them in the practice of right conduct. The mere sensation of pain and pleasure has not this retarding effect ; that is why one must distinguish between the vedaniyas and the nokasayas.

 

C) The vedas.

Also the sex‑passion hinders the jiva from obeying the laws and from practicing self‑discipline. It is of three‑fold variety, according to the three species of sexes.

 

1)      purusa‑veda, the male sex and corresponding sex‑passion. Through  this, in the man the desire for union with a female is produced, in the same way that through the phlegm desire for something  sour is awakened. It is like a straw‑fire; as with the burning go grass  the fire blazes and soon becomes extinguished, so also man has at first an exceedingly strong desire, which disappears as soon as his  lust is satisfied.

 

2)      stri‑veda, the female sex and corresponding sex‑passion. Through this, in a woman the desire for union with a man is excited,  as through the bile the desire for something sweet. It is like the burning of dung; as the dung‑hill only glimmers so long as it is covered, but through violent shaking grows into a continually greater conflagration, so also the  desire in the woman is weak so long as she is untouched, but  grows into immensity through the enjoyment of intercourse.

 

3)      napumsaka‑veda, the third sex and corresponding sex‑passion.  To the third sex belong all those beings who have no sexual  organs. The sexual desire is with them exceedingly strong., because  it is directed towards men and women. The effect of the napumsaka‑veda therefore corresponds to that of bile and phlegm, which together produce  the desire for majjika=m