Shri R. K. Jain Memorial Lectures
University of Delhi
SRAVAKACARA
(JAINA CODE OF CONDUCT FOR HOUSEHOLDERS)
ITS SIGNIFICANCE AND ITS RELEVANCE TO THE PRESENT TIMES
BY
DR. B. K. KHADABADI
1992
SHRI RAJAKRISHNA JAIN CHARITABLE TRUST
NEW DELHI
Published by:
Shri Raj Krishna Jain Charitable Trust
Ahimsa Mandir, 1, Darya Ganj,
New Delhi‑110 002
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TO
THE SUBLIME SOUL OF RAJENDRA MY SON
PREFACE
It is a matter of pride and pleasure for me to deliver this 13th Series of Shri Rajakrishna Jain Memorial Lectures at this reputed University of Delhi, under the benign auspices of the Department of Buddhist Studies. My pride implies the fact, that these lectures happen to be on Sravakacara‑‑‑ the Jaina Code of Conduct for Householders, and the late Shri Rajakrishnaji, in whose honour they have been instituted by the R.K. Jain Charitable Trust. He was an illustrious sravaka with exemplary dedication to numerous religious, social, national and humanitarian causes, that have left a lasting impression on certain spheres of the present day society of Delhi. Moreover his son, Shri Prem Chandraji Jain, is also a worthy sravaka, who has been treading the same righteous path with all sincerity, devotion, and charity. My pleasure, of course, immanates from my compliance with my acceptance of the kind invitation of R.K. Jain Memorial Lectures Committee, by duly preparing and delivering this Series of Lectures, which the undertaking was quite hindered by my ill health during the month of April last year, when the scheduled program of these lectures had to be postponed indefinitely. Fortunately, I have been now, able to travel and come over here and appear before all of you.
I have strived to present, in the course of these lectures, a succinct depiction of Sravakacara‑‑‑ the Jaina Code of Conduct for Householders (i.e., the Lay Doctrine), as based mainly on the basic texts on this subject which was composed by authors of both traditions, Digambara and Svetambara. I have also utilized, at proper contexts, some other additional sources, like the Jaina Inscriptions, Jaina story literature, Colophons of works by Jaina authors and some field work done by myself, not exhaustively but representatively. I have tried to bring out in short, the significance of this Code of Conduct for Householders, and to establish its relevance to the present days on convincing grounds and, at times; by presenting my own views and critical observations.
Through the contents of these lectures, I believe, one would find that this Code, comprising the choicest human virtues and profound moral values, systematized with an eye on the universal good, has come down all along the ages with needful adaptations and adjustments and has remained even to this day, a proud privilege of the Jaina heritage. One would also be convinced that if heeded in time. and practiced properly, at least essentially, by all people, it holds a great promise to cure the major maladies of the present day world and bring solace to mankind.
Now, let me express my sincere gratefulness to the members of Shri Rajakrishna Jain Memorial Lectures Committee, University of Delhi, for the honour they have done by inviting me to deliver this Series of Lectures and for extending this opportunity for presenting my study on the Jaina Code of Conduct for Householders, which program the Department of Buddhist Studies has so ably organized. My thanks are also due to Dr. K.K. Mittal, the Head, and other members of the staff of the Department.
Now, the same study has come in the form of this treatise with some additions effected in the light of the latest developments in the field; and Shri R.K. Jain Charitable Trust, Ahimsa Mandir, New Delhi, has been kind enough to publish it so promptly.
In the course of preparing these Lectures at home, in the remote town of Sankeshwar, my late lamented son was of great help in procuring some rare books and journals from different University Libraries and other basic sources. He encouraged me, as I was keeping indifferent health for a few weeks, by promising to accompany and escort me along the journey to Delhi for delivering these lectures that has been already postponed. But unfortunately, destiny suddenly whisked him away before he could do so. Hence, I have reconciled myself by dedicating this treatise to his Soul. I am grateful to the Chairman of the Trust for giving his consent to this sentiment of mine.
Lastly, I must on behalf of the esteemed R.K. Jain memorial trust, thank Dr. C.S. Naiker, Reader, Department of Sanskrit and Prakrit, Karnatak College, Dharwad, for doing the arduous work of proofreading and the proprietors of the Manohar Printing Press, Dharwad, for printing the book so neatly.
B.K. KHADABADI
Aradhana,
Kolekar Street,
Sankeshwar ‑‑‑ 591313
CONTENTS of shrvakacara
LALA RAJ KRISHEN JAIN
PREFACE
SCHEME OF TRANSLITERATION
INTRODUCTION
SRAVAKA AND SRAVAKACARA
SAMYAKTVA
THE MULA GUNAS
THE VRATAS
The Anu‑vratas
The Guna‑vratas and Silksa‑vratas
The Aticaras
THE ANU‑VRATAS
The Ahimsanu‑vrata
The Satyanu‑vrata
The Acauryanu‑vrata
The Brahmacaryanu‑vrata
The Parigraha‑parimana‑vrata
Ratri‑bhojana
THE GUNA‑VRATAS AND SIKSA VRATAS
The Dig‑vrata
The Desa‑vrata
The Anartha‑danda‑vrata
The Samayika‑vrata
The Prosadhopavasa‑vrata
The Bhogopabhoga‑parimana‑vrata
The Dana‑vrata
The Sallekhana‑vrata
SIGNIFICANCE OF SRAVAKACARA:
Ethical Discipline in Jainism‑‑‑ the lay doctrine
Jaina Sangha‑‑ an ideal social organization
Samyagdrsti‑‑ the right faith
Asta‑mula‑gunas‑‑ the eight basic virtues
The twelve vows, the five smaller ones and the principle of ahimsa
The Householder's or Layman's ahimsa: non-violence
Peculiarities of the vows of satya truthfulness, acaurya‑ non‑stealing and brahmacarya‑sexual morality
Guna‑vratas‑‑the strengthening rules of conduct
Siksa‑vratas‑‑the disciplinary rules of conduct and the role of dana‑charity
The Role of puja‑worshipping
Sallekhana‑ willing submission to the inevitable death
RELEVANCE OF SRAVAKACARA TO THE PRESENT TIMES
The present day ailing world, the lay doctrine, and a proposal for a new approach.
Our proposed new approach is not a sentimental utopianism, but the one standing on proven facts.
The three great virtues: non-violence, limited attachment to possessions and non‑absolutistic Attitude, have already stood the test at the hands of Gandhiji.
The relevance of these great virtues to the solution of the outstanding problems of the present times :
The problem of violene and unrest;
Conflicts between ethnic groups and neighboring countries, and wars between nations, and groups of nations;
Racial discrimination, casteism and exploitain of some by others;
Economic inequality, poverty, and suffering;
Prayer for preparedness for cultivation of the virtue of ahimsa, the summum bonum of the whole code.
I N T R O D U C T I O N
Religion is as old as humanity and it has played a dominant role along the course of the history of human life and thought. It has, in its primitive days, tried to explain to man some of the mysteries of the Universe,1' to reconcile him with the insecurity of his future, to unfold and interpret the relationship between his body and soul, and to guide him constantly in the redress of misery and suffering, and in the search for real happiness. It has also tried to answer outstanding questions regarding the relation of man and the Universe; man and his many sided duties, his goal of life, and a compatible path leading to the same, etc. Great seers and sages, in different periods and in different parts of the world, have answered, in their own ways, these and such other questions; and their words, in due course of time, have saturated as the doctrines and creeds of their respective religions. Ethical precepts, conceived and laid down for the attainment of man's goal of life, though varying in number, nature and vigor, they happen to be more or less the common constituent factors of almost all the religions of the world. However, some religions differ as regards the existence of God, his attributes and his reign or control over the Universe, and its contents at large.
Jainism, the real contribution of which to human thought is being recognized, since the time of its being brought, within the purview of western critical scholarship and research (i.e, from about the latter part of the 19th century), is a significant religion, among those born and cradled in India (and outside too), for its antiquity, as well as, its lofty philosophical and ethical doctrines, though it has today just 3.9 million followers, numerically, forming a very small segment of the total Indian population, i. e., mere 0.48 per cent of it and, thus, ranking the 6th and the last religious group after the Hindus, the Muslims, the Christians, the Sikhs and the Buddhists.2
According to Jain tradition, twenty‑four Tirthankaras (Ford‑makers i. e., Layers of Path leading to Perfection) or Jinas (Winners of Victory over the senses) preached the Sacred Law in the present Cycle of Time. Rsabha was the first to reveal the Ahimsa_ dharma and higher values of life, to bring a good order in the society, and to lay an ideal path to perfection. Mahavira was the last to elucidate and promulgate the Law in historical times; and it is known as Jina‑dharma, Jinism in its correct form, but called, and used as Jainism in practice. In the early days of Jainological Studies, different views, some based on inadequate material, were held on some part of the history and antiquity of Jainism. But on the strength of modern researches, we can say now that Jainism is not an off‑shoot of the Vedic line of thought, as developed in the reformist school of the later Upanisadic tradition, is far older than Buddhism, and had its origin in the Pre‑Aryan period of primitive currents of religious and metaphysical speculation, as prevailing in the early Sramanic culture of North East India. The stream, of which, could be traced back to the days of the Indus Civilization3 itself. Dr. Jyoti Prasad Jain has recently put forth his thesis, that Jainism is the oldest living religion.4
Coming to the philosophical side of Jainism, the doctrine of Anekantavada (non‑absolutism), being upheld by the peculiar dialectical method of Syadvada as supplemented by Nayavada,5 the conception of Reality as divided into six fundamental substances (dravyas),6 and the theory of karma are the unique aspects of Jaina philosophy with their comprehensive nature and realistic approach, etc.7 It makes the individual self‑reliant who is the architect of his own fortune or misfortune. There is no place here for the priestly agency or divine intervention for seeking one's mundane welfare or final salvation. God as creator, and controller of the Universe, and distributor of favors, and punishments for worldly beings is not admitted here. At this context, Dr. G. C. Pande's observations are worth noting: "Sramanic atheism is not a variety of irreligion but of religion. It faces the evil and suffering of life squarely, and attributes it to human failing rather than to the mysterious design of an unknown being. It stresses the inexhorableness of the moral law. No prayers and worship are of any avail against the force of karman. It emphasises self‑reliance for the quest of salvation. Man needs to improve himself by a patient training of the will, and the purification of the fee1ings. Such purification leads to an inward illumination, of which the power is innate in the Soul or mind. This is quite different from the Vedic view where illumination comes from outside, either from the eternally revealed word or from the grace of God."8
Jaina ethical doctrines, too are of immense significance. Hence, some scholars and thinkers have envisaged Jainism as Ethical Realism.9 Jaina ethics, having its root in metaphysics, permeated with practical features and having nirvana or moksa (emancipation or liberation) as its goal, trains one to attain it, through the systematized cultivation and assimilation morality, which are known as rules of conduct. All this amounts to the Right Conduct (Samyak‑caritra), which is based on the Right Belief (Samyag‑drsti) in, and the Right Knowledge (Samyag‑jnana) of the Seven Principles (tattvas), leading to liberation (nirvana or moksa). The corpus of rules of Right Conduct are also termed as Ethical Discipline (acara‑dharma) prescribed for the Community (Jaina‑sangha) as a whole, which is a four fold social organization consisting of sadhu (monk), sadhvi (nun), sravaka (layman) and sravaki (layman) ad sravaki (laywoman). It has two‑fold objective:
1. It accomplishes spiritual purification and emancipation by liberating the soul from the clutches of karma.
2. It trains the members of the community to cultivate and acquire an attitude of equality towards all the living beings, and also to nourish sanctity for each individual and his possessions. Such ethical discipline is properly graded to suit the capacity, equipment and environment of every individual.
It is prescribed in two forms: one is the rigorous and prefect for the monk and the other, naturally, less rigorous and partial for the householder, who has to shoulder numerous family and other social responsiblities. The first is known as yatyaca or mundharma (Ethical Discipline for the Monk), and the second, sravakacara or Sravaka dharma (Ethical Discipline for the Householder). This two‑fold Ethical Discipline can be said to have been mainly reperesented by a set of five vows‑rules of conduct (which, of course, are followed by a number of different secondary vows and virtues of protective and regulative nature).
The five vows are ahimsa (non violence), satya (truthfulness), asteya (non‑stealing), brahmacarya (chastity), and oparigraha (non‑acquisition). When prescribed for the house‑holder,these are called anu‑vratas‑small or parital vows, and maha‑vratas‑ great vows, to be rigorously and perfectly prcticed by the monk. It is so very important to note at this juncture, that the conception and organization of the Jaina‑Sangha and the nature and arrangement of these vows in two forms, with their complementaty and consistent characteristics, duly serve both the socioeconomic needs, and religio‑spiritual objects of the community as a whole. Moreover, the first of these vows viz. ahimsa (non‑violence or non_hurting), is the cardinal vow, widely known as the doctrine of ahimsa, and holds a pivotal position in the entire super structure of this Ethical Discipline.12 Not only this, but all the doctrines of Jainism are said to revolve around this doctrine of ahimsa. Hence, Jainism is often designated as Ahimsa‑dharma.
Moreover, it is now an established fact that no religion of the world has so far given such primacy for the all pervading moral precept of ahimsa as has been done by Jainism. It is also a well‑known fact that in the whole of this violence‑striken world today, the Jaina house‑holders (Sravakas and Sravakis) are the only people who give considerable importance to non‑violence or non‑hurting (ahimsa), and bring it into practice in their daily life according to their capacity. This significant phenomenon, it is heartening to note, is drawing now the attention of even the western world to the extent that recently, in June 1985, 'Jaina Community' came to be taken as an inter‑ disciplinary subject for the ' First Inter‑national Seminar on Jainas as a Community which was sponsored by the Department of Social Anthropology at the reputed University of Cambridge (U. K.), wherein, a number of Social scientists from different parts of the world participated. 13 I do not, of course, mean to profess here that every member of the Jaina community today is sravaka or sravaki in the true or technical sense of the term.13A But we can actually see that a good many of them, even to this day, practice sravakacara (Ethical Discipline or Code of Conduct for the Householder), which could, naturally, be its latest 20th century phase, proving thereby its long, unbroken, active and purposeful existence from a hoary antiquity. So, now, it would be interesting, as well as, enlightening to have a critical view of sravakacara (the lay doctrine) with reference to the basic texts, and bring out its significance and its relevance to the present times.
REFERENCES:
1. Of course, this realm later, came to belong to Science for the discovery of order in the phenomena of nature.
2. (i) These figures are as per the 1981 census. (ii) It may also be noted, that the Jainas have always constituted a small religious minority of Indian society throughout their historical existence. (iii) For further details on this point, vide A Demographic Analysis on Jains in India, by Shri M. K Jain, Jain Journal, Vol. XXI, No. 2. (iv) Some inquisitive persons think that the figures of the 1981 census are not correct owing to wrong entries made under the 'Dharma' column. On the ground of some private survey, they estimate that the number of followers of Jainism is still, far bigger. Vide Shri Ramanlal Sheth, Conference Sandesa (Bombay), July 1989.
3. (i) During the infancy of Jaina studies, some scholars held Jainism to be a later branch of Vedic religion, others that of Buddhism, etc. Moreover, in the Cambridge Lectures of Prof. Max Muller, delivered in 1882 and pub1ished in the book form, entitled India: What can teach us ? (Indian edition, by K. A. Nilkantha Shastri, Longmans Green Ltd., i934), there is not a single reference to Jainism, though it was once to Buddhism. (ii) I need not discuss here all details on this point, but just refer to some of the important sources: (a) Prof. Hermann Jacobi, Studies in Jainism, pp. 3‑4; (b) Mrs. Gusheva N. R., Jainism, pp. 20 25; (c) Dr. A. N. Upadhye, Preface to his Pravacanasara (d) Dr. G. C. Pande, sramana Tradition (Its History and Contribution lo Indian Culture), particularly Lecture I, p. 2.
4. In his booklet, Jainism: The Oldest Living Religion.
5. (i) Dr. D. S. Kothari points out that the eminent scien‑tist Neils Bohr's Principle of Complementarity, which is a significant and revolutionary concept of modern physics, is philosophically very close to the concept of Syadvada. For a fund of valuable details on this subject, in his paper on Modern Physics and Syadvada, Jeet Abhinandana Grantha, Part 11, pp. 187‑ 199. (ii) (a) Dr. Dayanand Bhargav thinks that Syadvada has almost become a synonym for Jainism. Jaina Ethics, Preface, p. vii. (b) He also, observes that Jaina ethics is based on the fundamental doctrine of Anekanta‑‑non‑absolutism. Op. Cit., p. 37. He appears to have considered the doctrine of Anekanta as tbe doctrine of Ahimsa or the plane of thought.
6. Dr. M. L. Mehta writes; (i) "None of the realists tried to divide Reality exactly in the same sense as Jainism did." It may be noted that Jainism resolves the Whole of the Universe of being (Reality) into two uncreated, everlasting, co‑existing, and independent categories of ajiva and jiva. Ajiva is further divided into pudgala (matter), dharma (principle of motion), adharma (principle of rest), akasa (space) and kala (time). (ii) "The conception of dharma and adharma as the categories of substance is the unique contribution of Jaina Philosophy." Outlines of Jaina Philosophy, pp. 29 and 34.
7. Op. cit. p. 74.
8. Sramana Tradition, Lecture IlI, p. 73.
9. Justice T. K. Tukol remarks: "Jaina ethics is the most glorious part of Jainism and it is simply itselt." Compendium of Jainism, p. 195.
10.(i) This is wonderfully epitomized in a single Sutra (No. 1) by Umasvami in his Tattvarthsutra: Samyag-darshan-jnana-charitrani moksamargah. (ii) The seven tattvas (principles) represent an ethical classification of Reality: jiva, ajiva, asrava, bandh, samvara, nirjara, and moksha – soul, no-soul, inflow (of karmic matter into the soul), bondage, stoppage, elimination and liberation.
11. To elucidate this system at some lenght, the monk is enjoined to preserve, preach and perpatuate the Sacred Law and to guide the house-holder in his religiospiritual pursuit. The householder, on the other hand, sticking to enjoined ethical code of conduct, discharges his family and other socio-economicic duties and creates proper conditions for the monk’s rigorous course of life. Moreover, the householder, whose pious life is a kind of training in the ascetic life, later, at a certain stage, enters the monk’s life himself.
12. Dr. K. C. Sogani has recently endeavoured to show that the entire Jaina ethics tends toward the translation of the Principle of Ahimsa into practice: vide his Preface, Ethical Doctrines in Jainism, p. XI.
13. (i ) For details in this regard, vide Dr. V.A. Sangavc's Presidential Address, Jaina Sangha and Society Section, First All India Conference of Prakrit and Jaina Studies, Varanasi, Jan. 1988, Souvenir of P.V.R.I. Golden Jubilee and this Conference‑ Smarika, Varanasi, 1988. (ii) The Publication of the Volume containing the deliberations and findings of this Seminar is awaited.
13A. My close observation, and a little of field work in my home (Belgaum) District, have shown me that even to this day, there are found, here and there, such pious house‑holders who follow this code of conduct after accepting the twelve fold vow at the hands of their teachers. One Shri Dattubhai Kothadia, a land lord‑cum‑ banker, a svetambara sravaka of Nipani, observed even the vow of acamla‑Vardhamana that spread over the span of l9 years. Shri Annasaheb Khot, an agriculturist, a Diagmbara sravaka of Shamnevadi, never allowed pesticides to be used in his farms.
SRAVAKA AND SRAVAKACARA
In the course of our having a brief acquaintance with the salient aspects of Jainism through a few introductory words, we have noted that this dharma14 (religion) preached by the Jina, consists of Right Belief (samyag‑drsti or samyaktva), Right Knowledge samyag‑jnana), and Right Conduct (samyakcaritra), which together,15 in proper combination, lead to liberation or emancipation. Right Belief means perfect faith in the six substances (dravyas), seven principles (tattvas), etc., that mainly go to formulate the dogmas of this religion. Right Knowledge means accurate knowledge of all these substances, principles, etc; and Right Conduct, which is based on, or which is to be practiced after the accomplishment of the first two. The ethical discipline or Code of Conduct is prescribed in two separate forms: The first, for the monk, known as yatyacara, and the other for the layman or householder, known as sravakacara.
The term sravaka is commonly used to designate a layman. Several etymologies, some quite elaborate,16 are given for this term. The quintessence of all such etymologies could be as follows: One, who sincerely and regularly listens to the teachings and preachings of the Jina through the monk for the good of one's own self, is a sravaka. Other alternate terms found in usage are: sramanopasaka, its abbreviation upasaka (one who adores the monk and his teachings), sagara, grhin, grhastha (one who practices the prescribed code of conduct by staying at home), desasamyamin (one who is partially self‑ restrained and indifferent to worldly attachments), sraddhal7 (one having faith in the words of the Jina as taught by the monk) etc.l8 In good old days, the Jain layman was known as Sravaka. A currupt form of this word viz., saravaga or saravagi was in wide currency in later days. Today he is called a Jaina only.l9
Similarly, sravakacara is the commonly used term for the code of conduct prescribed for the layman. The other alternate terms found in usage are: up‑asakacara, sravaka‑dharma (savaya‑dhamma in Prakrit), sagara‑dharma, grhastha‑dharma, etc. 20
ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF SRAVAKACARA
Jainism, originating from the sramanic way of thought and life, must have had its followers in due course of time. What was the exact nature of the religio-spiritual and social life of the laity in the earliest period of its history? We have no means to ascertain. But this much is certain, that the Jina admitted the laity along with their natural inability to adopt a discipline of complete self-control and harder modes of spiritual pursuit; and, hence, the lay life was designed as a stage preparatory to the ascetic life for the realization of the highest goal, and at the same time, making it complementary to the monastic life. This is evident in the nature of the social organization, i. e., the Jaina‑Sangha2l with its prescribed two‑fold code of conduct; one for the monastic life, and the other for the lay life, the out lines of the second of which came down in the Upasakadhyayana. the lost 7th anga according to the Digambara tradition22 and the extant Urasaga‑dasao of the Ardhamagadhi Canon of the Svetambaras, and further, given some place in the early works like the Caritra‑prabhrta of Kundakunda and the Tattvarthasutra of Umasvamin. Thereafter, with the passage of a period, of about a thousand years after Mahavira, the code of conduct for the laity i. e., the Sravakacara, assumed a shape of separate entity in independent treatises on the subject such as the Ratna Karandaka Sravakacara and the Savaya‑pannatti. 23 Then, meeting with the expedients of marching time and expanding regions, influenced by some contents of the Puranic works, by authoritative sayings of great Acaryas, and by customs and manners prevalent among the neighboring people with other religious traditions, etc. It had several innovations, adaptations and injunctions, as reflected in the apparent flexibility of the astamula‑gunas, and of the enumeration, interpretation and scope of some of the secondary vows, etc., about which we shall have some discussion later at relevant contexts. With all this, it attained its full growth during the medieval period of Jaina history,24 which is known as the period of the growth of the Sravakacara, and which also happens to be the golden period of Jainism, particularly in southern and western India. The plausible line of the origin and growth of the Sravakacara as a lay doctrine is well chalked out and presented by R. Williams in his book,25 which I must reproduce here for some of its details and significant observations:
"The traditional distinction between the code of behavior for the householder, the sravakacara, and that for the monk. the yatyacara, is a fundamental one. Initially the lay estate was admitted by the Jina only in deference to human frailty, and was regarded in theory as a stage of preparation for the ascetic life. In the early period of Jainism, the sravakacara, was therefore of minimal importance, and as it has grown progressively in significance, various expedients have had to be adopted to make up for the silence of the canonical texts. The corpus of the lay doctrine is, in fact, a creation of the medieval period. The Upasaka‑dasah supplied the frame work of the vratas, each with its five typical aticaras or infractions, and the Pratimas. Though the notion that these aticaras were intended only as examples is familiar to the older svetambara Acaryas, they soon became, in practice, the basis of a complete moral code. The Avasyaka literature gave the details of the necessary duties which are obligatory on the layman, as well as, on the monk, and doubtless because some practices belong at the same time to several categories‑ the samayika, which is both vrata, pratima and avasyaka, is a case in point, and because in some of them the ascetic is assimilated temporarily to the position of a monk, the transference to the lay life of rules originally intended for the community of monks was facilitated. This process of adaptation developed on a wide scale and contributed notably to the building up of the vast edifice of the temple ritual. An expanding tradition of sacred legends, such as those which, under the appelation of the Puranas have been fashioned by the Digambaras into the shape of a scripture helped to lend authority to innovations in practice as when the name of Krisna Vasudeva is invoked as the originator of the dvadasavartavandanaka. A similar purpose was achieved by the conferment of a quasi‑ canonical authority on famous Purvacaryas; an example is the use of the phrase iti Harihhadra‑suri‑matam. The Digambaras, who by not admitting the authenticity of the extant canon have to some extent rejected the servitudes of the tradition. They have not hesitated before a conscious rationalization of the texts: this is true notably of the Tattvartha‑sutra and the Ratna Kanandaka. Local usage or customary law, the desaacara, though accorded no mandatory force, has always been admitted as a guide wherever there is no conflict with Jaina doctrine, and more particularly in the modern period has been increasingly incorporated in the sravakacara. An extreme instance of this process would be the sanctification of the arka‑vivaha in the seventeenth century Traivarnacara. At all times the building up of the sravakacara has been assisted by the polyvalence of certain terms and by the habit, widespread among the commentators, of arbitrarily treating words or phrases as upalaksanas‑‑symbols or examples of wider categories: and again and again, the word adi is inserted by the commentators in places where the text offers no justification for it. The methods used in constructing the sravakacara have their analogies else where. It is with rather similar exiguous resources that the Christian and Moslem exegets raised their elaborate edifices of morality. " R. Williams also points out,26 a distinct aspect of the role of the Digambara Acaryas and scholars, played in the systematization of the lay doctrine: "Perhaps because they disclaim. the continuity of tradition, the Diga‑mbaras seem to have felt more keenly than the svetambaras the need to concretize and systematize the lay doctrine, and, in attempting a more logical presentation of the creed, they have effaced more than one discrepancy Ordinarily in any conflict of usage between the two sects, except in the practice of ascetic nudity. The Digambaras appear in the position of innovators, and it is precisely because they have largely jettisoned the dead_wood of an earlier age that their testimony is of greater value for the conditions of the mediaeval period."
SOURCES OF SRAVAKACARA
As we just passed our cursory eye over, the line of origin and growth of the sravakacara, our attention is drawn by a fact, that the canonical sector -‑ and also some of the early works like the Caritra‑prabhrta of Kundakunda and the Tattvarthasutra of Umasvamin --has given it rather a frugal treatment, in the sense that only one text is earmarked for it viz., the lost Upasakad/hyayana or the extant Uvasagadasao, though references to its outlines and it is being practiced by the laity are found in other canonical works, like the Naya‑dhamma‑kahao and others.27 It could be so, because in early days the yatyacara was of great importance for the preservation, interpretation and continuation of the Sacred Law; and the sravakacara, on the other hand, was in the primary stage28 of development, and as it grew in importance through a few centuries a vast amount of literature grew around it. Canonical works on monastic life are, no doubt, found in big number and several of them in bulky volumes. Works on the sravakacara, too appeared later not in a small number. The greatest number of treatises on this subject have been produced during the medieval period. They continued to be composed, and compiled until the late modern period. Thus, these treatises, on the sravakacara, happen to be the main sources of information on the nature of life of the laity. R. Williams has, perhaps for the first time, listed the names of these treatises and their authors, belonging both to the Digambara and the svetambara traditions, along with some comments on their contents as well as their authors.29 The following ones are worthy of note for us:
1. Caritra‑prabhrta of Kundakunda, Tattvartha sutra of Umasvamin, Ratnakarandaka of Samanta bhadra, Upasakadhyayana of Somadeva, Purusartha‑siddhyupaya of Amrtacandra, sravakacaras of Amitagati and Vasunandi, Sagara dharmamrta of Asadhara; and also Adipurana (Chs. 38, 39 and 40) of Jinasena. (Caritrasara of Camundaraya, Savaya‑dhamma‑doha of an unknown author and Traivarnikacara of Son asena.
2. Savaya‑pannatti attributed to Umasvati, Dharma‑bindu of Haribhadra, Uvasaga dasao with Abhayadeva's commentary, yoga‑sastra of Hemacandra, sraddha‑dina‑krtya of Devendra, Acara‑dinakara of Vardhamana and sraddha‑vidhi of Ratnasekhara.
Williams has also mentioned, that he has left out from his survey Tamil and Kannada treatises on the sravakacara, besides the Hindi and Gujarati ones, which happen to belong to the modern period. He has also pointed out that the Jaina inscriptions and story literature would yield valuable information on the lay life.30 Dr. A. N. Upadhye and Dr. Hiralal Jain, the General Editors of Somadeva's Upasakadhyayana; however, have stressed, in their editorial note, the need of a deeper study of certain material along with that of some points of historical, comparative and critical nature that have escaped R. William's attention.31 And I would add here, two more points at this very context: (i) The Jaina‑ Grantha‑prasastis (colophons) also need to be taken into consideration for the study of the sravakacara. Some of them give valuable information on certain householders, and their way of life. In support of this, I would give one or two examples: Mahakavi Puspadanta in the Prasastis of his Fasahara‑cariu and Nayakumara‑cariu, supplies considerable information about the great SIavaka, Prime Minister Bharata under the Rastra‑kuta King KrsnaIII and also about Bharata's son, sravaka‑siromani Nanna, who too patronised him. Apart from cases of patronizing ministers, Kings, feudal chiefs, etc., we get interesting information from such prasastis about those householders coming from the middle class of the society, too. Poet Raidhu (c. 1600 A. D.) records in the prasastis of his works about eminent householders like Harasi Sahu. Kheu Sahu, Kunthudasa Kamalasimha Sanghavi. Under the patronising regard of the last householder, the poet composed a treatise on the lay life, entitled Sammaltaguna‑nihana‑kavva, for the purpose of the svadhyaya of the devout soul.32 (ii) Secondly, there are available a number of Sravakacara works, still lying in the manuscript from in the various Manuscript Libraries in Karnataka and also in Gujarat and Rajastan‑‑that deserve to be published and studied for additional and, possibly, rare information of regional nature on the lay life. My cursory scrutiny of the Kannada Prantiya Tadapatrya Grantha‑suci,33 drew my attention to some interesting titles of manuscripts of the sravakacara works preserved in the Kannada script in the sastra‑bhandaras of theJaina Maths at Moodbidri and Karkal. The following are some of the titles of manuscripts in Sanskrit: Upasaka‑samskara of Padmanandi, Guna‑prakasaka by an unknown, Danasasana by Vasupujay, Sajjana‑citta‑vallabha by Mallisena, Bhavyananda Sastra by Pandyabhupati etc. Some of these are endowed with commentaries in Kannada. Some are also found with the concerned stories added to them. The following are some of the titles of manuscripts in the Kannada language:
1. Bhavya‑jana‑kanthabharana by Abhayacandra,
2. Danasara by Prabhacandra,
3. Cikka sravakacara by an unknown,
4. Anuvriti‑antaraya by an unknown,
5. Prayas'cilta‑vidhana by an unknown etc.34
I hope the study of these works will throw considerable light on certain rare aspects of contemporary lay life. This is certainly true of such manuscripts preserved in Gujarati, Rajasthani and Hindi too. Lastly, by way of elucidation, on the point of the unexploited sources like the rich Jaina Katha Literatute and inscriptions, I suggest that we have to bring out monographs like Glimpses of Householders' life as reflected in Jaina Stories and in Jaina Inscriptions found in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Gujarat, Rajasthan, and else where, too. Such monographs could be language wise at the beginning. Moreover, such work could be undertaken by individual scholars, as well as, the regional University Departments and Research Institutes with long‑term plans. Then, alone the study of the sravakacara could be thorough and complete.
PATTERNS OF PRESENTATION OF SRAVAKACARA
The householder's code of conduct is found to have been presented in these various treatises, by different authors of different periods, mainly on three patterns:
1. With the twelve vratas (vows) and samllekhand (voluntary termination of life).
2. With the frame‑work of eleven Pratimas (stages of ethical progress).
3. With the division of the whole ethical discipline into paksa, carya and sadhana.
The first pattern comprises 5 anu‑vratas (small vows), 3 guna‑vratas (strengthening vows) and 4 siksa‑vratas (disciplinary vows) and samllekhana, which is of voluntary nature. In the second pattern, the word pratima is used to designate the stages of ethical progress in the householder's life. The third one divides the whole ethical discipline of the householder into three parts:
1. paksa (beginner's course with favourable inclination towards the Sacred Law),
2. carya (performance of the eleven pratimas), and
3. sadhana (the accomplishment of samllekhana).
There are, however, differences of opinion among various scholars regarding the original tradition, logical nature, antiquity, etc. of these (particularly the first two) patterns or methods of approach to the exposition of the householder's code of conduct. Some scholars, like Pt. H. L. Jain, accept the second pattern as the ancient one, as it has been referred to in the old scriptural works like the Sat‑khandagama.35 Some others, like Dr. K. C. Sogani, think that this pattern is "though chronologically prior, the credit of logical priority comes to the first one."36 According to Prof. Schubring, "horizontally expanded as it were, the householder's duties (the twelve vratas etc.,) are projected into the vertical by the ladder of eleven uvasaga‑padima." In the plan of the successive rungs of the ethical ladder, "The idea rather implies partly a gradation of a more theoretical kind, and partly the opportunity of making selection."37 R. Williams holds that the first one is the original pattern followed both in the Digambara and the Svetambara traditions, while the Digambara Acaryas have often chosen the pratima frame for describing the householder's ethical discipline.38 Pt. K.C. Shastri also holds that the pattern of the twelve vratas is the most ancient one, and it is also duly accepted in the Svetambara tradition, too.39 I fully endorse this view, for also an additional reason that the ladder of the householder ethical progress, with its eleven rungs, stages or pratimas, which appears to have been worked out rather on a more enlightening and analytical line by some early unknown Acaryas, has itself to stand on the original and natural ground of the ethical discipline of the twelve vratas themselves. Pt. H. L. Jain's elucidation of the concept of the eleven pratimas making the four siksa‑vratas the very center of his discussion and elaboration, well high implies this point. Further, the third one, which is an all inclusive and systematically conceived later pattern, was devised by Acarya Jinasena and further adopted by Pt. Asadhara in his Sagara‑dharmamrta and also by some later authors in their works. Moreover from Hemacandra who in his Yoga‑sastra prefaces his discussion of the twelve vratas by the enumeration of 35 sravakagunas (that were worked out on the ideal layman's qualities described in the Dharma‑bindu of Haribhadra‑suri), toward the description of the Sravaka‑gunas, the important virtues of the householder, got prominence in the Svetambara treatises, which tendency later led to the matching prominence of titles of such treatises like Sraddha‑dina krtya of Devendra, Sraddha‑guna‑sreni‑ sangraha of Jinamandana, Sraddha‑vidhi of Ratnasekhara.
If we closely scrutinize these three patterns, we come to know that they do not contain any divergent aspects of rules of conduct, but they are mere methods of approach to the same subject comprising basically the same rules of conduct for the house holder prescribed by the Jina. If any treatise on the sravakacara follows any one of these patterns, it is so by way of representing the tradition as well as the age of that author. So far our deliberation was over the nature, scope, etc., of the householder's ethical discipline. We shall take up its very core which generally comprises the samyaktva together with the mula‑gunas, the twelve vratas and some miscellaneous topics of injunctionary and recommendatory type, which cannot be brought under any particular vow.
REFERENCES:
14. (i) The meaning of the term dharma here can hardly be covered by the term religion.
(ii) Here dharma is that (righteous way of life), which destroys karma, sustains living beings from misery in the cycle of transmigration and leads them to the highest bliss.
(iii) Vide the Ratna Karandaka Sravakaaara, v.2.
15. It is known as the ratna‑traya (the trio of gems) and also the guna‑traya (the trio of excellences).
16. (i) Like the one given in tile Abhidhana Rajendra under savaya. (ii) One who listens (srnoti), the words of the Jina (Jina‑ vacanam) and through the teacher (guru)‑‑these are the fundamental factors of all the etymologies. (iii) The 5ravaka‑dharma‑pancaŁaka of Haribhadrasuiri, with the Curni by Yasodeva, in its v 2, has perhaps preserved a simple but comprehensive etymology of this term.
17. This term is found in usage among the svetambaras only .
18. Some of the terms used to designate the monk are: anagara (the houseless), samaymin (self‑controlled), nir‑grantha (the fetterless) besides others like sramana, muni, sadhu etc.
19. Vide Pt K C. Shastri, Introduction to Upasakadhya‑yana, p. 58.
20. Some of the terms used for the monastic code of conduct are: anagara‑dharma, yati‑dharma etc, besides others like yatyacara, muni‑dharma, sadhu‑dharma etc.
21. Attributed to Mahavira, who elucidated and promulgated the Sacred Law in historical times.
22. As mentioned in the $atkhandagama, Part I, p. 102.
23. The term sravakacara, it my be noted, is used to denote the code of conduct for the laity and also for the title of treatises on the same subject.
24 Jaina history may broadIy and conveniently be separated in three divisions: (i) The early period‑ 600 B.C. to C. 400 A D., (ii) The medieval period‑‑C. soo A.D. to C. 1300 A. D. and (iii) ‑The modern period‑‑C 1400 A. D. onwards. For details, vide R. Williams, Op. cit., Introduction, p. xii.
25. Op. cit., Intro, pp. xvi‑xvii.
26 op. cit., Intro., p. xviii
27. In the story of Selaka here, there is a clear reference to the 5 anuvratas, 7 siksa‑vratas and 11 upasaka‑pratimas; and Jina‑dharma is referred to as Vinaya‑mula‑dhamma which is two‑fold: agara‑vinaya, and anogara‑vinaya, vinaya meaning ethical discipline.
28. A stage preparatory to ascetic life.
29. Op. Cit., pp I‑3l.
30. Op. Cit., Intro, p. xii.
31 (i) Pradhana Sampadakiya, p. 2.
(ii) They have also observed here that a thorough comparative study of all the extant sravakacara treatises is still a desideratum.
32. Vide Some Householders mentioned in ancient Jaina lnscrlptions and Grantha‑prasustis (in Hindi), by Dr. Rajaram Jain, Vaishali Research Institute Bulletin, No. 3.
33. Bharatiya Jnanapitha, varanasi, 1944, Ed. Pt. Bhujabali Shastri.
34. These titles of manuscripts have no separate column of the Sravakacara. But these are included among works under the subject dharma and one has to sift them out.
35. Vide Introd. to Vasunandi‑sravakacaro, p.22
36. Vide Ethical Doctrines in Jainism, p.110
37. The Doctrine of the Jaina, pp. 285‑287
38. op.cit., Itrod., p. xxvii
39. Intro. to Upasakadhyayana, p. 67.
40. Op. cit., Intro.,, pp. 54‑58.
SAMVAKTVA
It is a common human experience that if a man has to undertake any work or scheme and be successful in it, he must have a good faith in it, and faith or belief is nothing but a firm persuasion of the mind regarding the utility and fruit, etc., of the thing or act to be believed in. Jainism has systematically worked out this common‑sense view4l in the conception of its first jewel of the trio viz., samyag‑drsti or samyaktva‑‑Right Belief. Samyaktva is defined in various ways by different Acaryas, but the main point carried through these definitions is more or less the same. Some Acaryas like Camundaraya define it as, "Faith in the path to liberation shown by the Jina."42 Others like Haribhadrasuri define it as, "Faith in the truths enunciated by the Tirthankara.''43 Some other Acaryas like Samantabhadra, Vasunandi etc., describe it as faith in the three articles of belief:
1. apta (theJina)
2. agama (the scriptures) and
3. tattvas and padarthas44
Hemacandra calls it, "Faith in the right deva, the right guru and the right dharma."45
The discussion of samyaktva:
Right Belief has been the essential part of any portion of the work connected with the householder's conduct or of special treatises on the same, because Right Knowledge and Right Conduct (the other two jewels of the trio) are founded on Right Belief. The Uttaradhyayana‑sutra announces that Right Knowledge cannot be attained in the absence of Right Belief; acquirement of Right Conduct is impossible without Right Knowledge; and without Right Conduct there can be no liberation.46 The Yasastilaka of Somadevasuri explains: Right Belief "is the prime cause of Salvation, just as the foundation is of the main‑stay of the palace, good luck that of beauty, life that of bodily enjoyment, royal power that of victory, culture that of nobility and policy that of Government.47
With a view to describing samyaktva in all possible details and through different angles of vision, the Jaina Acaryas have brought it under different categories which are as follows:
1 gunas (characteristic qualities),
2 angas (limbs),
3 dosas (errors),
4 lingas (characteristics),
5 bhusanas (excellences) and
6 aticaras (infractions).48
While guna, anga and dosa are the Digambara concepts, linga and bhusana are presented by Hemacandra. The category of aticara; however, is common to both the Digambara and svetambara texts. R. Williams has systematically tabulated these categories with the following observation 49 "The subject of samyaktva is too vast and too imprecise to lend itself readily to numerical categorisation and there is considerable confusion and over‑lapping in the lists of qualities and defects conceived to describe it." I think it is natural to have been so, because the categories are conceived and laid down by different Acaryas, in different periods and with different practical needs.
Now let us pass our eyes over the various catagories of samyaktva. The following are the eight gunas ( characteristic qualities ) given by Camundaraya, Amitagati, Vasunandi etc., in their respective treatises:
1. samvega spiritual craving
2. gama, upasama tranquility
3. nirveda disgust
4. bhakti devotion
5. anukampa compassion
6. ninda remorse
7. garha repentance
8. vatsalya loving kindness
Following are the eight angas (organs) or smayaktva listed by Acaryas like Samantabhadra, Somadeva, Amrtacandra etc., in their respective works:
1. nihsanka freedom from fear
2. nihkandsa desirelessness
3. nirvicikitsa overcommin of repugnance
4. amudha‑drsti unswearing orthodoxy
5. prabhavana good works
6. upaguhana edification
7. sthiti‑karana strengthening of faith
8. vatsalya loving kindness
Following are the eight dosas (blemishes) enumerated by several Dig. authors in their works; and they are just the negations of the angas:
1. sanka fear
2. kanksa desire
3. vicikitsa repugnance
4. mudha‑drsti blind orthodoxy
5. aprabgavaba not doing good works
6. anupaguhana non‑edification
7. asthiti‑darana not strengthening the faith
8. avatsalya unkindness
Following are the five aticaras (infractions) listed in all the concerned works of the Digambara as well as the Svetambara authors. These aticaras can be equated with the first four dosas:
1. sanka doubt
2. kanksa desire
3. vicikitsa repulsion
4. para‑pasandi‑prasamsa admiration of adherenst of other creeds
5. para‑pasandi‑samstava praise of adherenents of other creeds
Hemacandra's list of the five lingas (characteristics) is as follows. These almost stand in rank with the gunas listed above:
1. samvega spiritual craving
2. sama tranquility
3. nirveda disgust
4. astikya outright acceptance of jina‑mata as the veritable creed
5. anukampa compassion
His list of the five bhusanas (excellences) is as follows. The last element is common with the fifth of the angas listed above:
1. sthairya firmness
2. kausala being well versed in the Jaina Doctrin