Art and Architecture
170. The Jainas have been amongst the foremost in
contributing to the field of art and architecture since early days. The images
of Tirthankara Risabhadeva and the figures of standing or sealed nude Yogins
found inscribed on some terracotta seats, relics of the prehistoric Indus Valley
Civilization, discovered at Mohenjodaro, as well as nude Harrappan red stone
statue are almost equally old. The latter is remarkably akin to the polished
stone torso of a Jana image from Lohanipur (Patna), which is ascribed to the
Mauryan times (4th c. B.C.) King Kharavel of Kalinga, as the Hathigumpha
inscriptions speaks, reinstalled the Jain image which had been taken away by
Nanda to Magadha in (4th c. B.C.) During the Satavahana period (60 B.C. to 225
A.D.) Mathura and Saurastra were the main centers. The earliest Mathura
sculpture represented by Kankalitila where from Ayagaptta, Stupa, images, and
other Jain cultural material are recovered. Gandhara art and Mathura art belong
to Kusana period (First B.C. to 2nd A.D.) in which Jainism flourished to Mathura
and the Ardhaphalaka sect, Yapaniya Sangha and Nagara art came into existence.
171. Gupta period (4th to 7th C.A.D.) is said to be the golden period of ancient
Indian Culture. Harigupta, Siddhasena, Harisena, Ravikirti, Pujyapada,
Patrakesari, Udyotanasuri and other Jainacaryas have been in existence during
the period. Karnataka, Mathura, Hastinapur, Saurastra, Avanti, Ahicchatra,
Bhinnamala, Kausambi, Devagumpha, Vidisa, Sravasti, Varanasi, Vaisali,
Pataliputra, Rajagraha, Campa etc. were the main Jain centers of art and
architecture. After the Gupta period, Kakkula, Vatsaraja, and Mahendrapala were
the Jain kings in the Pratihara dynasty. King Mona, Navasahasanka and Bhoja were
followers of Jainism. Dhanapala, Amitagati, Manikyanandi, Prabhacandra, Asadhara,
Dhananjaya etc. had contributed to the literary field during the same period.
Chittod was the capital of Paramaras where Kalakacarya and Haribhadra devoted
their lives for he development of Jain art and architecture. During Candela
dynasty, Khajuraho, Devagadh, Mahoba, Madanapur, Canderi, Ahar, Papora, and
Gwaliar became famous for their Jain art. Some important inscriptions, Toranas,
images and other sculptural material are found in Tripuri.
172. As mentioned earlier, Bihar has been a prominent state since very early
days with regard to Jain culture. It is the Parinirvanabhumi of so many
Tirthankaras and is enriched through Jain statues, relics, sculpture etc. at
Radiograph, Melinda, Parsvanatha hill, Simbhabhumi, Barabar hill, Patna,
Pavapuri etc. The earliest Jain images are recovered in Bengal from Surohar and
Mandoil of Mathura style. The images of Jain Tirthankaras found in Udisa at
Udaigiri-Khandagiri, and some other places such as Keonjhar, Mayurabhanja,
Jaipur, Cuttack are very beautiful from artistic point or view.
173. Gujarat and Rajasthan have been strongholds of Jainism since an early time.
Satrunjaya, Girinar, are Siddhaksetras of Jainism. Rastrakutas and Calukyas,
Pratiharas, Paramaras, Cauhan and other dynasties patronized Jainism and its art
and architecture. Hemacandracarya was a court poet of Jayasimha and Kumarapala.
Vastupala and Tejapala who were ministers of Baghelas of Solanki branch built a
large number of Jain temples at Girinar, Abu, Satrunjaya, etc. They are also
found in large number at Ranakapur, Udaipur, Sirohi, Jaisalmer, Jodhpur, Jaipur,
Alwar and so many places. The existence of Jainism in Punjab and Sindh can
traced out long before the Christian era, from the sites of Mohanjodaro, Harappa,
Taksasila, Simhapur, Sindhudesh, Lahore etc.
174. The inscriptional history of Jainism in Maharashtra starts with the Parle
inscription of first c. A.D. that commences with "Namo Arihantanam". Keljher,
Pavanar, Nagpur, Bhandara, Remtek, Akola, Karanja, Achalpur, Latur, Bhadravati
etc. are main Jain ancient sites with archaeological remains. Sirpur is famous
for its artistic decoration. Malakhed was found inhabitant when Padaliptacarya
visited in about 1st c. A.D., Jain caves are found at Ellora, Nasik, Dharasiva,
(Osmanabad) etc. Pratishthanpur, Belgaon, Kolhapur, Ehol, Alaktakanagara,
Kunthalgiri, Ardhapur, Kandhar Karanataka (Karad), Mahimagiri, Vatapi, Meghuni
etc. have been main centers of Jainism where huge and magnificent Jain temples
idols and inscriptions are found. Mrgesavarvarman's in inscription (450-478
A.D.) states that a huge donation was made to Digambaras, Svetambaras, Kurcakas
and Yapaniyas. Belagaon and Kolhapur were also ruled over by Silaharas of
Konkana who built their huge Jain temples like Adataraditya, Satyavakya,
Candraprabha, Ratta, etc. Vatapi, Ehol, Meguli were also Jain centers of this
period when Pulakesi First, Kirtivarman, and Ravikirti constructed Jain temples.
175. Andhra Pradesa has been a stronghold center of Jainism. Acarya Kundakunda
(1st c. A.D.), the spiritual leader of the time hails from Kondakunda situated
on the boarder of Andhrapradesha. King Vishnuvardhan of Calukyas, Akalavarsa,
Amoghavarsa, and Krashnaraja of Rashtrakutas, Bhima, Ganga Vijayaditya, Durgaraj
etc. of Vengis, Tailapa, Vikramaditya of Badami Calukyas, some kings of
Velanatichoda period patronized Jainism by way of constructing temples, Vasadis
and Vidyapeethas. Some of them, afterwards, were occupied by Virasaivaitas and
Lingayatas, who have been great destructors of Jain monuments and the community
as well. 176. Jainism in Karnataka goes back at least to Bhadrabahu and
Candragupta Maurya who migrated to South India via Ujjain with twelve thousand
disciples due to severe calamity and famine into he North. Simhanandin, the
Jainacarya, established Gangavadi dynasty. Jainism was its state religion for
about seven hundred years during which hundreds of Jain monuments were erected
by the kings. Pujyapada, Prabhacandra, Jinasena, Gunanandi, Patrakesari,
Puspadanta, Vidyanada, Anantavirya, Joindu etc. get the patronage of the
dynasty. Of the kings the name of Racamalla Satyavakya may be specially
mentioned under whose reign Camundaraya, his great minister erected the colossal
statue of Gomatesvara Bahubali, the unparallel statue in the world. After
Rashtrakutas Jainism got set back. One Vasava murdered his master Vijjala, the
Kalacuri Jain king and perished Jainism and its adherents. He established an
independent sect named Lingayata and persecuted the Jainas. From Jain
archaeological standpoint, the main sites are Mangal, Nandidurga, panditarahalli,
Candrasala vasadi, Aarapur, Arkettar, Sarangipattam, Halebid, Kelasaur, Aihole,
Marol, Honwad, Honnur, Kalholi, Mulguna, Lakkundi, Nagire, Billigi are the main
places where the Jain monuments are richly available.
177. Jainism entered in Tamilnadu most probably from Kalinga in about 4th c.
B.C. Visakhacarya proceeds to Cola and Pandya countries with the entire
Munisangha. It can be supported by the caverns containing beds carved out in the
rock found in hills and mountains around the Pudukottai, Madura and Tinnevelly
and rock-cut sculptures and inscriptions in the hills of the north Arcot
district which indicate the existence of Jainism in Tamil Nadu in 3rd c. B.C.
Kanci was one of the important seat of learning in South India. It was the
capital of Pallvas who were mostly Jainas in early centuries. The inscriptions
of Jinakanchi refers to some prominent Jainacaryas of the city like Kundakunda,
Samantabhadra, Jinacandra, Pujyapada, Akalanka, Anantavirya, Bhavanand,
mallisena etc. The North and South Arcot region is very rich from Jain
archaeological standpoint. Pancapandava, Trirumalai, Vallimalai, Vidal,
Villipuram, Chinglaput may be specially mentioned. Sittanavasal, Narttamalai,
Tenimalai, Bommamalai, Malamala, Samanar Kudagu, etc. have been the Jain centers
since last two thousand years. Most of these places have paintings, and
sculptures of Sittanavasala tradition, which may be compared with Ajanta and
Sigirya. Some of the rock-cut temples like Samanar Kudagu have been converted
into Visnu temples.
178. Madura was the capital of Pandyas who took their favorable attitude towards
Jainism. Its neighboring hills Annaimalai, Nagamalai, Alagarmalai, Muttupatti,
Eruvadi, etc. are very rich from Jain sculptural and painting standpoint. It is
a land of origin of Samgama literature. Tirukurala, Tolkappiyam, Naladiyara,
Cintamani, Silakppadikaram, Nilakesi, Manimekhalai, Kurala etc. are the Jain
epics of early period. Pujyapada, Vajranandi, Aryanandi, Patrakesari etc. were
the prominent Jainacaryas of the period. Afterwards Jainism was patronized by
the Kadamba kings. In Tinnevelly region the Kalugumallai, Tiruchcharanattumalai,
Nagarajaswami temple belonged to Jainas but they are under the control of
Vedicas.
179. Thus the survey of Jainism in South India gives and apparent picture of its
position that it was there popular during the period of Tirthankara Mahavira or
even earlier to him. The popularity augmented gradually and Digambara sect
became the prominent one. During about 11th c. A.D., Vaisnavism, Alawara and
Lingayatas came into existence and stood against Jainism that caused a serious
blow to its propagation. The devotees of Sambandara, Tirunavukkarasata, Appara,
Mukkanti, Tirumalasai, Tirumangai Vira-Saivas committed heavy atrocities on Jain
society, temples, sculptures and Vasadis. Their massacres took place and the
Jain centers were converted into Saiva or Vaisnava temples. Some places like
Pillaiyarapatti and Kunnakkundi, Arittayatti, Nartamallai, and Kulugamalai,
Tiruccirapalli, Virasikhamani, Kudumiyamalai, Dalavaura, Siyamangalam and
Mamamdura can be cited in this respect. All this can be evaluated as follows.
180. Jain images, Ayagapttas, Stambhas, Toranas, Vedicas etc. were excavatd from
Kankalitila in Mathura belonging to Kusana period. The Stupa made of bricks is
called Devanirmita Stupa. The symbols are not traceable on these images, the
Sarvatobhadra Pratimas. The names of Kaniska, Ruviska and Vasudeva are inscribed
on these images. The unique Jain image of Sarasvati may also be mentioned in
this context. The Chausa bronzes, in some Jain images in Lucknow and Patana
museums, the Jain remains at Vaibhara hill Rajagiri and the bronzes of the Akota
hoard are also belonging to this period. Some auspicious symbols like Phana,
Srivats, a Purnaganata, Svastika, Vardhmanaka, Matsya, Nandyavarta etc. are also
inscribed on one of the Parsva images. The image of Jivantasvami may also be
referred to the period. Then the crystallized forms of the iconography were
transferred to rocks on hills like Vaibhara hill, Udaigiri hills in Sanchi and
Udaigiri, Kalagumalai in South. Afterwards, the iconography became fixed.
181. In other words it can be said that the Jain iconography was developed
during the Gupta period in 4th century A.D. Decoration on Padpitha, Dharmacakera,
Paramesthis, Gandharva Yugala, Navagrahs, Triratnas, Bhamandala, and
Astapratiharys were included as the symbols of Jain images. However, all the
symbols could not be decided in the early Gupta period. The images of the period
can be viewed in Mathura museum, Vesanagar, Budhicanderi, Deogarha, Rajagiri,
Kumarahara, Vaisali and other places. Some more images of the Gupta period are
found in Udaigiri, Vesanagara, Nacana (Patana) etc. with somewhat more decorated
forms. Some of the bronzes of the Akota hoara, particularly the image of
Jivantasvami in Kayotsarga pose bearing a crown, Bhujabandha, Kundala, Kangana,
and the image of Ambika decorated with ornaments and Yaksa-Yaksis are the
representative images of the period. Sasanadevatas, Drum-player, a pair of
elephants etc. were also included in the symbols.
182. In late Gupta period these symbols were more developed and in about 8th-9th
c. A.D. all the symbols, Yaksa-Yaksis, Sasnadevidevatas, were fixed. Afterwards,
Ksetrapalas, Dikpalas, Navgrahas, and Vidyadharas were also placed around the
Jana images. Tantrism entered into Jain iconography in about tenth century A.D.
and as a result, the Yaksa-Yaksis etc. got their due place on the pedestal or
around the Jain images with more decorative sculptural surroundings. Sandy stone
is widely used in about twelfth century along with black and white marble. The
bronze images are also popularly available of the period. In the fourteenth
century the development of Jain iconography stagnated and the decline started.
This can be understood through perspective of iconographical peculiarities of
Tirthankaras and their associates.
183. Temple art is of three types, Nagara, Vesara and Dravid. In Niagara style,
the Garvagraha is quadrangular and its summit (Sikhara) is circular with Kalasa.
It is used in Punjab, Himalaya, Rajasthan, Madhyapradesa, Udisa and Bengal. The
Sikhara becomes flat in Vesar style, which is found in Madhyabharat, and the
temple gets the form of pillar in Dravidian style. The earliest Jain temple is
found at Lohanipur (Patna) of Maurya period. Then the temple art is available
from the seventh century onwards. Painting has also been one of the best methods
for expressing the ideas.
|