Chapter - X

Religious Divisions

The Jaina religions like other religions of India has suffered from the tendency of schisms and secessions. The different sects gradually sprang from time to time on account of the different interpretations put on the canonical texts. Besides, the circumstances of the particular time also compelled them to give up old ideas and to adopt new ones. The separation between the Digambaras and the Svetambaras took place in 79 or 82 A.D. A terrible famine occurred in Magadha in 293 B.C. and 14,000 monks under the leadership of Bhadrabahu with Candragupta Maurya moved on to the South. Some monks under the leadership of Sthulabhadra stayed no gaoha.

Both the traditions do not differ as regards the twelve-year famine that took place in Magadha and as regards the consequent emigration of the Jaina Saãgha under his leadership. But while the Digambara tradition states that the Saãgha migrated to the South, Ávetämbara tradition says that Bhadrabähu went to Nepal. The origin of the great schism, which later on developed into Digambara and Ávetämbara sects, is ultimately traced to this event.

After Bhadrabähu's departure Sthülabhadra assumed the leadership of the Saãgha in Magadha. He was a contemporary of Maurya Candragupta and Bindusära. After the famine was over he convened a council at Päûaliputra, at which the remnant of the Saãgha left behind in Magadha tried to put in order the sacred lore that had fallen into a state of decay. Sthülabhadra was succeeded by Ärya Mahägiri and then came Suhastin who was the religious preceptor of the Maurya king Samprati who is said to have been a devout Jaina and to have done much for the glory of his religion. After Suhastin came Susthita, Indradinna (Kälaka I), Priyagrantha and Vôddhavädï, one after the other. At this time lived Kälaka II of the Áaka-Vikrama fame. Then followed Dinnasüri, Siãhagiri and Vairasvämi. The last of these was the last Daáapürvï or keeper of a part of the original canon. It was in his time in M.E. 609 (or A.D. 82) that the gradually growing schism in the Jaina Saãgha was finalised and the two sects, Ávetämbara and Digambara, separated for good.

Jacobi observes that the division of the Jaina Saãgha into Svetambara-Digambara took place gradually, and that they became aware of their mutual differences about the end of the first century A.D. It is necessary to know what is the exact difference between these two sects, Literally, Digambara mean, 'sky-clad' and Ávetambara means 'white-robed' i.e. the monks of the Digambaras are naked, while those of the Svetambaras wear white clothes. In fact there is very little difference between the two branches as regards the essentials of doctrine. The most authoritative book, namely, Tattvartha Sutra by Umasvati or Umasvami has been accepted by both the sects. However, there are some major as well as minor points on which the two sections are opposed to each other. The major points of difference between the Digambaras and Svetambaras are as follows :

     (i)      While the Digambaras believe that a monk who wears clothes, can not attain salvation; the Ávetämbaras assert that the practice of complete nudity is not essential to attain liberation.

   (ii)      The Digambaras hold the view that woman, is not entitled to Mokÿa in this life. On the contrary, the Ávetämbaras believe that women can attain Moksa in this life.

(iii)      According to the Digambaras, once a saint has attained Kevala Jõäna (Omniscience) he needs no food, but can sustain life without eating. The view is not acceptable to the Ávetämbaras.

Leaving aside the trivial differences in rituals, customs and manners, the following are some of the minor points on which the two sects do not agree :

     (i)      The Digambaras maintain that the embryo of Mahävïra, the last Tïrthaõkara, was not removed from the womb of Devänadä, a Brähmin lady, to that of Triáalä or Priyakäriîi, a Kshatriya lady, as the Ávetämbaras contend.

   (ii)      The Digambaras believe in the complete disappearance of the ancient sacred literature and as such they disown the canonical books of the Ávetämbaras.

(iii)      The Digambaras assert that Mahävïra never married but according to the Ávetämbaras, Mahävïra married Yaáodä and had a daughter by name Anojjä or Priyadaráanä.

  (iv)      The Ávetämbaras consider Mallinätha, the 19th Tïrthaõkara as a female but the Digambaras state that Mallinätha was a male.

    (v)      According to Digambaras, the Tïrthaõkaras must be represented as nude and unadorned and with downcast eyes. The need not be so according to Ávetämbars.⁶

Saãgha, Gaîa and Gachchha

The Saãgha and Gaîa are well known political terms. The Saãgha-räjya means the rule of a community and the Gana-räjya indicates the rule of many a republic. In early times, there was perhaps no distinction between political Saãgha and Gana, because Päîini equates Gaîa with Saãgha. The Saãgha and Gaîa in Jainism and Buddhism might have come into existence in imitations of the political Saãghas and Gaîas which flourished in ancient India. Both  Mahävïra and Buddha were born and brought up in the republican atmosphere. They had Saãghas arround them. It is for this reason that they adopted the name as well as the constitution of the political Saãgha in organizing their religious Saãghas. It is also possible to suggest that the political Saãghas as Gaîas might have been founded in imitation of the religious Saãghas and Gaîas which had existed since the time when the two great religions were organized. The head of the Gaîa was known as Gaîadhara. Both these terms in the political and religious spheres indicate the group of persons with the main characteristic of possessing a mind conscious of certain ideology. The existence of large number of Saãghas and Gaîas in the Jaina community in ancient times points out that it was politically and culturally Saãgha highly organized. It is due to the efficiency of the Saãgha organization that Jainism has survived through all vicissitudes. The Gaîas in course of time also began to be known as Gacchas.

Gaîa in the Kalpa-Sütra and Kushäîa Inscriptions of Mathura

The Kalpasütra tells us that there were seven schools of thought with their respective branches (Áäkhäs) each of which separated in course of time into its own family Kula. It is interesting to note that several of these Jaina orders are mentioned in Kushäîa records. The seven Gaîas are Godäsa, Uddeha, Uduväûika, Vesaväûika, Cäraîa, Mänava and Kauûika.⁷

The first Gaîa had four Áäkhäs and Kulas. The second Gaîa Uddeha was founded by Ärya Rohaîa and was divided into four Áakhäs and six kulas. Nägabhüta and Parihasaka Kulas of Kalpasütra may be identified with Nägabhütikïya⁸ and the Paridhäsika⁹ of the Kuáäna  records. The third gaîa Uduväûika was subdivided into four Áakhäs and three kulas. None of these can be traced in any of the Kuáäîa inscriptions. The fourth Gaîa Veáavätika, founded by Kämarddhi, was subdivided into four Áakhäs and Kulas. Among these, only, the Mehika Kula¹⁰ is mentioned in a Kushaîa grant. The fifth Gaîa Caraîa identified by Buhler with Väraîa Gaîa of the inscriptions, was subdivided into four Áakhäs and seven Kulas.¹¹ The Kuáäîa inscriptions refer to several of them.¹² The Áäkhäs may be identified with the Häritamalakari, Vajranägari and Säãkäáikä and Partidharmikä of the Kalpasütra. The sixth Gaîa Mänava was divided into four Áäkhäs and three Kulas. But only a few of these are mentioned  in Kuáäîa records. The seventh Gaîa Kauûiya Gaîa founded by Susthita was subdivided into four Kulas and seven Áakhäs. This Gaîa is well represented in the Kuáaîa inscriptions.¹³ The Áäkhäs must be identified with the Vajrä, Mädhyamikä, Uchhänagari and the Vätsaliya while the Kulas may be identified with the Väîiya, Brahmaliptika and the Pôishîavähanaka of the Kalpasütra. The Madhyamikä branch was named after the ancient place Madhyamikä identified with modern Nagarï in Mewar. It was founded by Priyagrantha, the second pupil of Susthita and Supratibuddha.¹⁴

Pañcastüpänyäya — There is a controversy regarding the origin of the Pañcastüpanyäya, a sect of the Digambaras. One view is that it originated from Mathura while the other view is that it was established by Arhadbali who was the native of Puîâravardhana. Puîâravardhana was a centre of Jainism. The Pahärpur copper plate grant of the year 159 (478-479 A.D.)¹⁵ records that a Brähmaîa and his wife deposited three dinärs or gold coins with the city Council and lands for the maintenance of worship of the divine Arhats at the Vihära of Vaûa-Gohäli which was presided over by the disciples and the disciples of disciples of the Nirgrantha preceptor Guhanandin, belonging to the Pañchastüpanikäya of Banaras. It seems that Guhanandina belonged to the third or fourth century A.D. Vïrasena, who wrote a commentary on the Dhavlä, was the follower of Pañchastüpanyäya. Harisheîa has mentioned it in the Kathäkosha written in 937 A.D.

Digambara Saãghas, Gaîas and Gachchhas of the South Nirgrantha Mahäáramaîa Saãgha

From the two inscriptions¹⁶ of the Kadamba ruler Môgeáa (500 A.D.), it is known that villages and lands were given to the Munis of Nirgrantha Mahäáramaîa Saãgha. What was the shape of this original Saãgha, it is not known. The term Nirgrantha or Niganûha was used for  Mahävïra, and also for his followers. It seems that Nirgrantha Mahäáramaîa Saãga was in existence during the time of Mahävïra, and it continued even afterwards. Bhadrabähu accompanied this Saãgha for going to the South. During the third or fourth century A.D., there were two main divisions of the Jaina Saãgha (1) Nirgrantha Mahäáramaîa Saãgha and (2) Ávetapata. The Digambaras and the Ávetambaras lived together at Devagiri as known from the inscription¹⁷ and probably there were no separate temples. The Nirgrantha Mahäsramaîa Saãgha was of the Digambaras.

Müla Saãgha — The earliest mention of the Mülasaãgha is in the inscription (C. 400 A.D.) of Gaõga ruler Mädhavavarma II, and in the inscription of 425 A.D. of his son Avinïta.¹⁸ In the above two inscriptions, we find the names of Äcärya Vïradeva and Candranandi. These two Äcäryas performed the consecration of the temples, and the Gaõga rulers Mädhava II and his son Avinïta granted lands and villages. It seems that in South India, Mülasãgha was used to indicate the separation of the Digambaras from the Ávetämbaras. The name Nirgrantha-Mahäsramaîa Saãgha probably ceased, and it seems to have been called the Mülasaãgha. The early great Acaryas Kundakunda, Umäsvämï and Samantabhadra belonged to the Mülasaãgha.

The Mülasaãgha has been divided into seven Gaîas - Devagaîa, Senagaîa, Deáiyagaîa, Sürasûhagaîa Käîüragaîa and Balätkäragaîa. Generally these Gaîas were called after the end names of the Munis, and after the names of the provinces and regions.

Devagana — Among the above Gaîas, Devagaîa is the oldest. The existence of this Gaîa is known from the four inscriptions¹⁹ of Lakáameávara and the eleventh century inscription²⁰ of Kadavanti. It is not mentioned afterwards. The names of the Äcäryas of this Gaîa are — Püjyapäda, Udayadeva²¹, Rämadeva, Jayadeva, Vijayadeva²², Ekadeva, Jayadeva²³, Aõkadeva and Mahïdeva²⁴. Pujyapada was the founder of this Gaîa.

Deáï Gaîa and Koîâakunâänvaya

Deáigaîa is mentioned in several inscriptions as Desiya, Deáika, Desiga and Deáïya. The term Deáï originated from Deáa which meant province. Some region of Karîäûaka was known by the name of Deáa. From the inscriptions, it is known that there were several centres of this Gaîa in Karîätaka. Among them, Hanasoge (Cikahanasoge) was prominent. From the Äcäryas of this place originated the Hanasogebali or Gaccha. From the inscriptions²⁵ of Chikahanasoge, it is learnt that there were several Vasadis (Temples) of this Gaîa here, and they received patronage from the Caõgälva rulers.

Deáïgaîa has been classified into Pustakagachchha, Äryasiãhagrahakula, Candrakaräc ärjämnäya and Maitradänvya.

Pustakagaccha — In the Puïra inscription²⁶ dated 1087 A.D., the  donation of the land given to Padmanandi Maladharideva of the Pustakagachchha has been described. In the Halebeed inscription²⁷ of the eleventh century, the erection of an image by the disciples of Nemichand Bhaûûäraka has been mentioned. In the Citapura inscription²⁸ of the twelfth century A.D., the renovation of a temple by this Gaccha has been recorded. In the image inscription of Peddatuãbalam, the name of Bhaûûäraka Cändrakïrti is found. In the Stavanidhi inscription²⁹ of 1400 A.D., the construction of the temple at the preaching of Vïranandi of this Gaccha has been mentioned. The Samädhimaraîa of the Äcärya of Gomini Änvaya of the Pustakagaccha in the Heritage inscription dated 1224 has been engraved.³⁰

The first subdivision of Pustakagaccha was Panasoge (Hanasoge) Bali. Its first mention³¹ is in the early tenth century and there is a reference to Samädhimarana of Nemicandra, disciple of Sridharadeva. The second mention³² of this Bali is of 1180 A.D. Balacanda, pupil of Jayakïrti, installed an image. There are four inscriptions³³ of this branch which belong from 12th to 14th century A.D. The Äcäryas Lalitakïrti, Devacandra and Nayakïrti have been mentioned.

The second sub-division of Pustakagaccha was Iõguleávara Bali. It is mentioned in the seven inscriptions³⁴ and they belong to the          12th-13th centuries A.D. In these inscriptions, the names of the Äcäryas Haricandra, Árutakïrti, Bhanukirti, Mäghanandi, Nemideva, Chandrakïrti and Jayadeva are mentioned.

Pustakagaccha has been mentioned without any sub-division in several inscriptions. The first such inscription³⁵ is of 1081 A.D., and Bhaûûäraka Sakalakïrti is mentioned in it. There are seventeen such inscriptions which belong to the 16th century A.D.

The Pustakagaccha of Deáigîa is found with Koîâakuîâänvaya. In some inscriptions, only Koîâakunâänvaya is mentioned. The oldest inscription regarding. Konâakunâanvaya is the Tamra idia obtained for Markaräbhip Lekh Tämrapatra. The other inscriptions³⁷ are dated 802 A.D. and 797 A.D. It mentions Koîâakunâeye Anvaya. It indicates the place Koîâakunâa. This inscription mentions that Räÿûraküta ruler Kambharäja donated a village to the Acarya Vardhamäna.

The Second Sub-division of Deáïgaîa named Äryasaãgha Graha Kula is found only in one inscription³⁸. It belongs to the tenth century, and it mentions Áubhacandra, disciple of Kulacandra. This inscription was discovered in the Khaîâagiri hill of Orissa, while other inscriptions of Deáigaîa belonged to Karîäûaka.

The third sub-division of Deáigaîa is Candrakarä-cäryämnäya which is mentioned in only one inscription.³⁹ It has been discovered in Madhya Pradesh. Subhadra is known to have performed the consecration ceremony of the temple. The fourth sub-division of Mainadänvaya of Subhacandra Äcärya is mentioned in the inscription⁴⁰ and it belonged to the 13th century.

The are several inscriptions of Deáigana without any sub-division. In two inscriptions⁴¹ dated 950 and 1096 A.D., there is mention respectively of the Äcäryas Guîacandra and Ravichandra. In these inscriptions, there is mention of Deáïgaîa along with Koîâa Kundänvaya. In eighteen inscriptions, there is mention of Mülasaãgha — Deáïgaîa. Among them, old inscriptions⁴² belong  to the twelfth century A.D. Eight inscriptions mention Deáïgaîa only. The old inscription⁴³ among them are dated 1032 A.D. and 1054 A.D.

The ancient name in the inscription of the current name Kundakundänvaya was Koîâakundänvaya, which means it originated from Koîâakundapura. Some scholars prove on literary grounds that Mülasaãgha and Koîâakundänvaya are synonymous, and Äcärya Kondakunda is the founder of the Mülasaãgha. This is not proved from any inscription before the eleventh century A.D. Mülasaãgha and Koîâakundänvaya were together used in the inscription⁴⁴ of 1044 A.D. Koîâakundänvaya has been independently used in the inscriptions⁴⁵ of the eighth or ninth century A.D. In the inscription of 802 A.D., Koîâakundänvaya was regarded as Gaîa⁴⁶. The earliest use of Deáïyagana with Koîâakundänvaya was used in the inscription of 931 A.D.⁴⁷ From the inscriptions, it appears that the use of Koîâakundänvaya started from the later half of the seventh century A.D., and in the eighth or ninth century, efforts were made to make it powerful. Its first influence fell on the Deáastha Saints of Karîäûaka region. They began to be called Koîâakundänvaya Deáïyagîa. The Draviâa Saãgha was also slightly influenced by Koîâakundänvaya.⁴⁸ It is known from the inscription but it seems that influence was not permanent. The Dräviâa Saãgha Koîâakundänvaya is not found mentioned in any other  inscription.

Nandi Gana — Seeing the similar names of the ancient Äcäryas in the inscriptions of the Mülasaãgha and the Dräviâasãgha, it appears that old Nandigaîa (Saãga) might have come from outside in these two Saãghas. These ancient Äcäryas might have belonged to Nandigana. It seems that the Draviâa-Saãgha and the Mülasaãgha might have adopted the Nandigana of the Yäpanïya Saãgha. The Nandisaãgha was on important one among the Yäpanïyas.

Senagan — The earliest mention of the Senagaîa is found in the inscription⁴⁹ dated 821 A.D. It is also found in the Mulagunda inscription⁵⁰ of 903 A.D. Guîabhadra, the author of the Uttarapuräna, regarded his teacher Jinasena and grand-teacher as scholars of Senänvaya. Vïrasena and Jinasena in the commentaries of Dhavala and Jayadhavala mention Pañchastüpänvaya. Gunabhadra mentions for the first time Pañchästüpänvaya as Senänvaya in the Uttarapuräîa.

Senagaîa has been sub-divided into three Gacchas — (1) Pogari or Hogiri Gaccha, (2) Pustakagaccha and (3) Chandrakapäûa. The first mention of the Pogarigaccha is found in the inscription dated 893 A.D. This inscription⁵¹ records the grant of the village to Kanakasena, disciple of Vinayasena. In this inscription, it has been called Pogariyagaîa of Mülasenänvaya. Another inscription⁵² is of 1047 A.D., and Pandita Nägasena has been called the Äcärya of Senagaîa-Hogari-gaccha. The Cälukya queen Akkädevï granted some donation to him. The Pogarï Gachchha is found mentioned in the inscriptions⁵³ up to the 13th century A.D.

The first inscription⁵⁴ of Chandrakaväûa Anvaya is dated 1053 A.D. wherein the lineage of Ajitasena, Kanakasena, Nayasena etc. has been described. Saradära Kancarasena of Sindakula gave some charity to Nayasena. Narendrasena II, disciple of Nayasena, has been mentioned in 1081 A.D.⁵⁵ An officer named Droîa gave him some donation. Narendrasena and Nayasena were well versed in Grammar. In the inscription⁵⁶ of 1066 A.D., Bhaûûäraka Áäntinandi of Candrikävaûa has been mentioned. The name Mulasamgha is given but not of Senagaîa.

The third sub-division Pustakagachchha of Senagaîa is found in the inscription of the 14th century A.D. A lineage of the eleven Äcäryas has been given in it. There is a mention of Samädhimaraîa of Laksmïsena and of Mänasena, disciple of Lakÿmisena.

Thirteen inscriptions of the Senagaîa from the eighth to seventeenth centuries are known. Five inscriptions from the 12th to the 15th century of this Gaîa were found at Hire Ävali.This proves  that Hire Ävali was a great centre of this Gaîa. In the inscription of the 13th century A.D., Kundakundanvaya was associated with Senagaîa. From the 15th century onwards, its influence gradually decreased.

Sürastha Gaîa — A Gaîa named Sürastha of the Mülasaãgha was famous. This Gaîa is known from the inscriptions.⁵⁷ It is mentioned as Sürastha, Surästra, and Sürastha. It appears that the monks of this Gaîa might have lived in Surasûhra from the beginning. Hence, this name was given. It is possible that there might be some region of Suräsûra in South India, from where the Munis might have derived this name. The first mention of this Gaîa is in the inscription⁵⁸ of 962 A.D. in which Mülasaãgha has been associated with Draviâa Saãgha. The lineage of the saints namely Prabhäcandra, Kalneledeva, Ravicandra, Ravinadi and Eläcärya has been decribed. The Ganga ruler Marasiãha II donated a village to Eläcärya. The inscriptions of this Gaîa from the 11th to the 13th century are found. No Kundakundanvaya has been found in the inscriptions of this Gaîa.

Two sub-divisions of the Sürastha Gaîa are known Kärüra Gachchha and Chitrakuûänvaya. There is only one inscription⁵⁹ dated 1007 A.D. in which Arhanandi Paîâita has been described. There are ten inscriptions of Chitraküûänvaya.

The first inscription⁶⁰ is dated 1071 A.D. in which some donation given to Áishyä of Sri Nandi Pandita has been described. The thrid inscription⁶¹ is dated 1074 A.D. in which some donation given to Ärya Pandita, pupil of Arhanandi has been mentioned. The next two inscriptions⁶² give the lineage of this Aanvaya — Väsupüjya, Harinandi and Nägachandra. Harinandi and Nägacandra got some donation in 1148 A.D. That the Sürastha gaîa was in existence from the tenth to the twelfth century is known from fourteen inscriptions.

The donation of village to Eläcärya of this Gaîa has been mentioned in the Kädalüra Copper plate inscription.⁶³ In this inscription dated 963, the names of early Äcäryas are given — Prabhächandra, Kalneledeva, Ravicandra, and Ravinandi. In three inscriptions⁶⁴ of the 13th century Adalageri, Nägachandra, Nandibhaûûäraka and Jayakriti of this Gaîa have been mentioned. These are the memorials of the Samädhimaraîa of those Saints

Käîüra Gaîa — Käîüragaîa is similar to Kaîâura Gaîa the Yäpanïyas. Both Käîura and Kandüra reveals a particular place, from where the group of monks of this Gaîa derived this name. The earliest inscription of this Gaîa belongs to the tenth century A.D.⁶⁵ It describes the teachers lineage, and mentions some donation given to the disciple of Äcärya Municandra. The inscriptions of this Gaîa up to the 14th century are available. From the inscription, it is known that in the 11th and 12th centuries, Gaõa king Bhujabala, Gaõgavarmadeva, his queen Gaõga Mahadevi and four sons were  devotees of the Äcäryas of this Gaîa and honoured them by the charities.

Three sub-divsions of Kräîüra Gaîa are known (i) Tintriîï Gachchha, (ii) Meshapäshäîa Gachchha are (iii) Pustaka Gachchha.

Tintrinï Gachchha — There are six inscriptions⁶⁶ of Tintriîïgachchha. The first two belong to the twelfth century A.D. and they describe Meghacandra and Parvatamuni Äcäryas. The thrid is dated 1207 A.D. and it mentions some donation given to Bhaûûäraka Anantakïrti. The fourth inscription⁶⁷ dated 1556 A.D. mentions Devakïrti, Municandra and Devacandra.

The inscription⁶⁸ dated 1130 of Meáapaÿäîa gachchha describes Äcärya Kulacandra or Prabhäcandra, and another inscription⁶⁹ is concerned with Vasadikä. There are inscriptions of Meshapäshäîa gachchha⁷⁰ and Tintrinïka gachchha⁷¹. Meáapäÿaîa means stone meant for sitting of goats. It seems to be a particular place from where the saints of this Gaîa might be somehow related. Tintriîika was a name of the tree. An inscription of the Pustaka Gachchha is dated 1150  A.D.⁷² The existence of this Gaîa from the tenth to the sixteenth century is known from sixteen inscriptions. 

Balätkära Gaîa — Looking at the resemblance, Balätkäragaîa originated from Balihäri or Balahäragaîa of the Yäpaniya. Balihära or Balagära appears to be territorial in nature. There was a village named Balagära in South India.⁷³ The earliest inscription⁷⁴ of Balätkäragaîa is dated 1071 A.D. It mentions the names of eight Äcäryas. Another  inscription⁷⁵ of 1075 mentions Anantakïrti, disciple of Municanda of Chitraküûämnäya of this gaîa. Anotherinscription⁷⁶ mentions the names of three Äcäryas. There is mention of Tribhuvanacandra in the inscription⁷⁷ dated 1074 A.D. Next important inscriptions of this Gaîa are of the 13th century⁷⁸. In the 14th century, Balätkaragaîa is found associated with Sarasvatïgachchha. In the inscriptions of the later half of the 14th century, there was special influence of this Gaîa. The kings of the Vijayanagara kingdom honoured them. An inscription⁷⁹ of the reign of Vïra Bukkyaräya mentions Äcärya Siãhanandi as  Räjaguru and Maîâaläcärya. Another inscription⁸⁰ mentioning Nandisaãgha with Mülasaãgha and Särasvata gachchha with Balätkära gaîa is important. Inscriptions of Kärañja branch and its Lätüra sub-branch of Balätkarägaîa of the South were discovered at Ukhalada.

 Nigamänvaya : An inscription⁸¹ of Mülasaãgha-Nigaãänvaya is dated 1310 A.D. It records the installation of an image by Kôÿîadeva.

Yäpanïa Saãgha : According to the Daráanasära of Devasena- Süri, Yäpanïya Saãgha was established by Ávetambara Árïkalaáa in V.S. 205 at Kalyäîa town in Gulbarga District in Karîätaka. Like Ávetämbaras, it recognized the existence of sacred books and believed that women could attain salvation and saints could take food after attaining omniscience. At the same time, it was, like the Digambaras, against using clothes and it followed the rules and regulations of Digambara ascetics. They used the bunch of peacock feathers. It appears that this Saãgha was a connecting link between the Digambaras and the Ávetämbaras. This Saãgha produced several renowned scholars such as Aparäjita, Pälyakïrti Áäkaûäyana and Vimalasuri.

The Yäpanïya Saãgha received the royal patronage from the kings of Kadamba, Chälukya, Gaîga, Räshûraküta and Baûûa dynasties. These kings donated lands to this Saãgha and its saints.  The Kadamba ruler Môigeáavarä (470-490 A.D.) performed pious deed by donating land at the place Paläsikä to this Saãgha along with other Saãghas namely Nirgranthas and Kürchakas⁸² Ravivarmä, son of the above Kadamba king, donated the Purukheûaka village in donation to Kumäradatta, the main Äcärya of this Saãgha.⁸³ Yuvaräja Devavarmä of the second branch of the Kadamba dynasty also granted some lands to this Saãgha⁸⁴. Some Kadamba inscriptions⁸⁵ inform that the influence of Yäpanïya Saãgha at the time early Kadamba kings was great.

We learn about the Gaîas and Gachchhas of Yapaniya-Saãgha from some inscriptions⁸⁶. In the Sect of the Yäpanïyas, Nandi Saãgha was the main, and also the oldest. The names of the Äcäryas of this Saãgha were particularly Nandyanta and Kirtyanta.⁸⁷ Nandisamgha was divided into several Ganas. Among them Kanakopala Saãbhüta Vôiksha Müla Gaîa⁸⁸, Sri Mülamüla Gaîa⁸⁹ and Puîîägavôiksha Mülagaîa⁹⁰ were important. The names of the Gaîas were connected with some trees. The lineage of the Äcäryas of Kanakopalasambhutavôikÿa Mülagaîa, as mentioned in the inscription⁹¹ dated 488 A.D. is as follows :

Siddhanandi, Chitakäcärya (who had five hundred disciples), Nägadeva and Jinanandi. A feudatory named Sämiyära of Sendraka dynasty of Chälukya king Jayasiãha after constructing Jaina temple for Jinanandi donated a village and some land. Chandranandi, Kumäranandi, Kïrtinandi and Vimalachandrchärya are mentioned in the inscription⁹². This inscription refers to Eregitturagaîa and Pulikalagachchha. At the preaching of Vimaläcandräcärya, a Sämanta Nirgundaräja Paramagüla during fifty year reign of the Gaîga ruler Árï Purusha after constructing Jaina temple and freeing people from all taxes granted a village in charity. The lineage of the Äcäryas of Punnäga Vôiksha Müla Gaîa in the inscription⁹³ is given as follows —

Árï Kityäcärya, Kaviläcärya, Vijayakïrti and Arhakïrti. At the request of his feudatory Cäkiräja, the Räshûraküûa king Prabhrita Varsha Govinda III donated a village named Jälamaõgala to Arakakïrti for the management of a Jaina temple in 812 AD. Äcärya Pälyakïrti, author of the Säkatäyana Vyäkarana of the Yäpanïya Saãgha lived during the time of Amöghavarsha. Palyakïrti was either a disciple or a religious associate of Arkakïrti. In the inscription⁹⁴ of 1108 A.D., we find Puîîagavôksha Mülagaîa as branch of the Mulasaãgha which was afterwards it was absorbed by the Mülasaãgha.

Like Karîäûaka, Yäpanïya Saãgha was popular even in Tamil Province. Koûimaâuvagîa of Nandi Gacchha (Saãgha) of the Yäpanïyas is mentioned in the inscription⁹⁵ and its Äcäryas were Jinanandi, Diväkara and Árï Mandiradeva (Dhïradeva). Dhïradeva was the Adhishthätä (Builder) of the Kaûakämaraîa Jinälaya. At the request of commander (Kaûakaräja) Durgaräja. Ambharäja II of the Early Cälukya Dynasty, donated a village to that temple for the Yapanïya Säãgha. In another inscription,⁹⁶ the lineage of the Äcäryas of Aõkaligacchha Balaharigaîa has been given as follows — Sakalacandra, Ayyapoti and Arhanandi. Ambharäja II donated a village named Kalucumbaru on Attilinaîdu province for repairing of the kitchen of Sarvalokäáraya Jinälaya. It appears that Balahärigaîa and Aîkaligaccha belonged to the Yäpanïyas. Balahäri or Balagäragaîa is mentioned in the inscription⁹⁷ of the later half of the eleventh century A.D. in the form of Balätkäragana of the Mulasaãgha.

In the inscriptions of the kings of Raûûa dynasty, we find two names of the Gaîas of the Yäpanïyas — Käreyagaîa and Kaîâüragaîa. Indrakïrti (disciple of Guîakirti), teacher of the first ruler Pôithvïräma of the Raûûa dynasty, belonged to the Yäpanïya Saãgha. In another inscritpion,⁹⁸ Käreyagaîa is mentioned, and Mailäpänvaya in place of Mailäpatïrtha. The lineage of the saints of Käreyagaîa Mailäpa Anvaya is as follows — Mülabhaûûäraka Guîakïrti, Indra Kïrti, Nägachandra, Jinacandra, Áubhakïrti and Devakïrti. Gaîga feudatory of some Amoghavarÿa king after constructing Jaina temple donated a village to Muni Devakïrti. The existence of Kaîdüra Gaîa of the Yäpanïyas is known from the two inscriptions⁹⁹ of Raûûa kings. The lineage of the teachers of Kaîâüragaîa of the Yäpanïyas is given as below — Devacandra, Devasiãha, Ravicandra, Arhanandi, Áubhacandra, Maunideva and Prabhäcandra Deva.

From the inscriptions of the Yäpanïyas, it is learnt, that it remained well organized from the fifth to the fifteenth century A.D. There were several influential Gaîas in it. Later on, Punnäga Vôiksha Mulagaîa, Balahärigaîa and Kaîâüra Gaîa joined the Mulasaãgha, Nandi saãgha, Draviâasaãgha first, but  were  afterwards absorbed in the Mülasaãgha.

There is a copper plate inscription¹⁰⁰ of the early sixth century A.D. of the Yäpanïyas. It belongs to Ganga king Avinïta. It records the donation of a temple installed by Yavanika Saãgha.

There is mention of Kumili or Kumudi gaîa of Yäpanïya — Saãgha in four inscriptions¹⁰¹. The first inscription¹⁰² of the ninth century A.D. describes Amara Mudala Guru, disciple of the Acarya Mahävïra. He got built Deáavallabha Jinälaya in the north of the village Kïreppäkkam. In another inscription¹⁰³ dated 1045 A.D., some Äcäryas of this Gaîa have been described. At this time, an official name Chävuãâa got a Jinälaya constructed. Other two inscriptions¹⁰⁴ are of uncertain time. These are Niÿidhi inscriptions. The first inscription is the memorial of Samadhimaraîa of Áänta Vïradeva of this Gaîa.

There are four inscriptions¹⁰⁵ of Punnägavrikshamülagaîa of the Yäpanïya Saãgha. The first inscription dated 1044 records the donation to Bälachandra Äcärya of this gaîa for the newly constructed Jinälaya in Pulinagara. It also mentions donation to Rämacandra Äcärya in 1145 A.D. The next inscription¹⁰⁶ is dated 1165 A.D., and  the lineage of the teachers is given. The commander Kälaîa of the Áilähära king Vijayäditya after constructing a Jinälaya at Ekkasambuge city made some donation to Vijayakïrti for it. The inscription¹⁰⁷ dated 1096 A.D. records some donation to Paîâita Cärukïrti, disciple of Munichandra Traividya of Vôiksha Mülagaîa. In an inscription¹⁰⁸ of the time not definite, there is mention of the temple of Kusuma Jinälaya of Vôikÿamülagaîa.

The Kaîâura gaîa of the Yäpanïya Saãgha is mentioned in three inscriptions.¹⁰⁹ The first is of the early twelfth century A.D., and it describes the four Äcäryas namely Bähubali, Áubhacandra, Maunideva and Maghanandi. There is a reference to a temple of this gaîa in the inscription of the 13th century. The third inscription   mentions a Jaina image of this time. The reference to Käreyagaîa of Yäpanïya Saãgha is in the inscription¹¹⁰ of the early twelfth century A.D. Müla Bhaûûäraka and Jinadevasüri were the Äcäryas of this Gaîa.

Yäpanïya saãgha has been mentioned in the five inscriptions¹¹¹ without any reference to Gana or Gaccha. The first inscription is dated 1060 A.D., and it informs the lineage of teachers — Jayakïrti, Nägacandra and Kanakaáakti. The next two inscriptions belong to the twelfth century A.D., and they mention the Samädhimaraîa of  Municandra and his disciple Pälyakïrti. The last inscription of the 13th century A.D. refers to Traikïrti Äcärya.

The Dharmapurï inscription¹¹² of the eleventh century A.D. records donation to Mahävïra Paîâita of Vandiyüra gaîa of Yäpänïya Saãgha. The Varaõgala inscription of 1132 A.D. refers to the passing away of Gunacandra of Mahämuni of this gaîa.¹¹³ In the Tengalï inscription¹¹⁴ of the twelfth century A.D., Vaâiyüragaîa has been mentioned. The disciple of Äcärya of Nägavïra of this gaîa installed in image¹¹⁵. The four inscriptions of this Gaîa belong from 980 A.D. to the 13th century.

Kürcaka Saãgha : The Kürcaka Saãgha was in existence in Karîataka during the fifth century A.D. along with the Yapaniya Saãgha as is guided from the inscriptions of the Kadamba rulers. As the Monks of this Saãgha had beard-mustache, it was called Kürchaka.

In the Kadamba inscription¹¹⁵, Kürcaka Saãgha is mentioned along with the Nirgranthas and the Yäpaniyas. Kadamba ruler Mrigeáavarmä granted land to the Kürcakas along with the Yäpanïyas and the Nirgranthas. In an inscription¹¹⁶, Vïrasneîäcärya Saãgha, a branch of the Kürcakas, has been mentioned Kadamba king Harivarmä at the preaching of Áivaratha donated a village named Vasuntavätaka for the worship of a Jaina temple built by Môigesä, son of the Senapati Siãha and for Ähära (food) or Sarvasaãgha. In the inscription¹¹⁷, there is mention of one more Áramana Saãgha named Aharishûi to which at the request of Sendraka feudatory Bhaîuáakti, Kadamba King Harivarmä donated a village named Marade.

Dravida Samgha : A group of Jaina Saints residing in Draviâadeáa was known as Dräviâasaãgha. In the inscriptions, it is mentioned as Draviâa, Draviâa, Draviîa, Dräviâa, Davila and Tibula. Draviâadeáa covers the modern Andhra and Madras region which is  called Tamiladeáa. According to the Daráanasära of Äcärya Devasena, Dräviâasaãgha, was established by Vajranandi disciple of Püjyapäda at Madura in the South in V.S. 526. Generally, most of the inscriptions of this Saãgha belong to the kings of Koõgälva dynasty, Áäntara dynasty and Hoysala dynasties. These inscriptions inform that Dräviâasaãgha received royal patronage from the kings of these dynasties. Most of the inscriptions of this Saãgha belong to the kings of Hoysala dynasty. It is learnt from these inscriptions that Äcärya of this Saãgha contributed to the propagation of worship of Padmävati. The monks of this Saãgha renovated the Vasadis or Jaina temples in which they were living, gave ähäradäna, and managed lands, Jägira etc.

The early inscriptions of Drävïâa Saãgha were found at Aõgadi (Solebüraan), the origin place of the Hoysalas. In one inscription¹¹⁹ dated 990 of this place, this Saãgha was written as Draviâasaãgha Koîâakundänvaya and in another inscription¹²⁰ dated 1040 as Mülasaãgha Dravidänvaya. But in the inscriptions¹²¹ of the later half of the eleventh century A.D., it has been mentioned Draviâagaîa along with Nandisaãgha I Saõgalänvaya or Aruõgalänvaya. In the beginning, Dravida Saãgha reamined associated with Mülasaãgha or Kundakundänvaya but afterwords, it came to be related with the Nandisaãgha of the Yäpanïyas. When Draviâagaîa became influential, it became Dräviâa Saãgha. The discovery of early inscriptions of the Hoysalas at Aõgädi (Solebüra) proves that they might have contributed to strengthen the Drabida Saãgha. In some inscriptions of Nandisaãgha, Aruõgalänvaya has been mentioned. Aruñgala is the name of the place in Gudiyapattana Tälukä of Tamila Province. The combined name Draviâa Saãgha, Nandi Saãgha Aruõgalänvaya informs that it was the Nandisaãgha of Tamil province, and Nandisamgha originated from Arungala. From the Nandisaãgha of the Yäpanïyas came into existence the Nandisaãgha of Drävida Saãgha. In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, the seats of the Munis of this Saãgha were Mullüra of Kongälva kingdom and Hummach, capital of Áäntara Kings. The inscriptions¹²² found at Hummach inform about several Äcäryas of this Saãgha – Áreyäãáa Pandita, Sudharmä, Kamalabhadra, Vädhïbhasiãha and Ajitasena Pandita.

An inscription¹²³ of Nandigaîa — Aruõgala Anvaya of Dräviâa Saãgha belongs to the eleventh century A.D. The lineage of Áäntamuni, Vädiräja and Vardhamäna has been given in it. The next inscription¹²⁴ of this Anvaya is dated 1192 A.D. and it describes about Vajaranandi, disciple of Väsapüjya. In an inscription¹²⁵ of the 14th century A.D., the lineage of the Anvaya-Árïpäla, Padmaprabha and Dharmasena is known. In three inscriptions¹²⁶ of the Dräviâa Saãgha, Aruõgala Anvaya has not been mentioned.

The Vajïrakheâa copper plate inscriptions¹²⁷ dated 915 A.D. record the donation of village to Vardhamäna guru, disciple of Lekabhadra of Vïragaîa-Vïrnäya Anvaya of Draviâ Saãgha. Amoghavasati of Chandanäpurï and Uriammavasati of Vaâanera were looked after by them. It is the oldest of all the available inscriptions so far available. Varnita Viragana Vïrîayya Anvaya is not found mentioned in any other inscription. It is the first and only inscription of the Dräviâa Saãgha found outside Mysore Pradeáa. The Pudüra inscription¹²⁸ dated 1087 A.D. records the donation of land to Äcärya Kanakasena for Pallava Jinälaya. The Ujjili inscription¹²⁹ dated 1167 A.D. mentions the donation of land to Indrasena Äcärya of Drävida Saãgha — Senagana Kairüra gachchha. The association of Sënagaîa with Drävïâa-Saãgha was not known earlier. Earlier Senagaîa was told related with Mülasaãgha and Kairüra gaccha with Surästha gaîa. The inscription¹³⁰ dated 1194 A.D. is the last of this collection. It was discovered from Yetina hatti and it records the  death of Äcärya Ajitasena.

Käshthä Saãgha — There is a controversy among scholars about the origin of the Käshûhä Saãgha. Devasena, an author of the tenth century A.D., mentions in the Daráanasära that Kumärasena established the Käshûhä Saãgha in the south. In two inscriptions,¹³¹ its name has been mentioned Käñchï Saãgha. It has been written in the Vacanakoáa of the 17th century that Lohäcärya, Pattadhara of Umäsvämï established this Saãgha at Amarohä in North India. According to Kamta Prasad,¹³² Käshthä Saãgha originated from Käshûhä village near Mathura located on the bank of the river Yamunä. The main gacchas or branches of the Käshûhä Saãgha were Nanditala, Mäthura, Vägaâa and Läûavägaâa.

Jambükhanda, Gaîa — Jambükhaîâagaîa has been mentioned in the inscription¹³³ of the sixth-seventh century A.D. Sentraka king Indraîanda donated something to Äcärya Äryanandi.

Siãhavüra Gaîa — There is an inscription¹³⁴ dated 860 A.D. of Siãhavüra gaîa. It records some donation by king Amoghavarsha to  Äcärya Näganandi of this Gaîa.

It seems that there was not much difference in the functiong of the Saãhas, Gaîas and Gacchas of the South. Munis of these organizations go constructed temples and Mathas (Monasteries). They received the donation of the villages, lands, gardens, houses etc.  They participated in discussions of the royal courts. Incidentally, they helped the kings to manage the affairs of their kingdoms. They tried to increase the influence of Jainism even by Mantra Sädhanä, Astrology and Medicines.

Ávetämbara Gachchhas of North India During Medieval Period

The number of Ávetämbara Gachchhas was originally 84 but it seems to be only conventional. Neither the castes nor the Gachchhas were founded at one time. They came into existence at different times. Some names of the Gachchhas have no significance but were added simply to make their number 84. This increase in number started about the eleventh century A.D. At present, their number seems to be about one hundred fifty. Most of these Gachchhas originated in Rajasthan, but a few in Gujarat. The Äcäryas of these Gachchhas are known to have performed the consecration ceremony of images and temples at different times and places. These gachchhas originaged in different ways. Some of the gachchhas were named after certain good deeds by certain persons while others named after influential persons. Some of the ancient Kulas in course of time were also converted into the Gacchas. The Gacchas are also territorial in origin.

Rajasthan

Actional — Gachchhas

(1)       Bôihad Gachchha

Uddyotana Suri bestowed the designation of 'Süri' on the eight monks including Devasüri under the shade of a large banian tree at a village Teli situated at Mount Abu. According to the opinion of some, the designation of the (highest priest) was conferred only on Sarvadevasuri. As the designation was conferred under the banian tree, the Nirgrantha Gaccha began to be called Vaûa Gaccha. Vaûa Gachcha is known also by another name Brihad Gaccha.¹³⁵ The earliest inscription of 1086 A.D. of this Gaccha in Rajasthan is found at Kotarä in Sirohi State.¹³⁶ The next early inscription of 1158 A.D. is found at Nädol in Marwar.¹³⁷ From the inscriptions it seems that it became popular in Sirohi¹³⁸ and Marwar States in the 12th, 13th and 14th centuries. The inscriptions  of the 14th and 15th centuries of this Gaccha are also found Udaipur and Jaisalmer.¹³⁹

(2) Kharatara Gaccha — Kharatara Gaccha is the most famous and influential Gaccha. Jineávarasüri by defeatng the Chaityaväsïs in the royal court of Durlabharäja got the title 'Kharatara' in 1017 A.D. From him started the Kharatara Gaccha.¹⁴⁰ It arose outside Rajasthan but gathered a large number of followers here. In course of time, it was divided into many branches.The inscriptions of this Gaccha are found in the different parts of Rajasthan. But it remained dominant in Jaisalmer from the 14th century to the 19th century.¹⁴¹ The Ächäryas of this Gaccha installed several images and wrote many works.

(3) Tapä Gaccha : Jagacandra Süri was not only a scholar but he  was also a great ascetic practising penances. He accepted the penance  of doing 'Äyambil' for the whole life and passed twelve years in this way. Seeing it, Jaitra Simha, the king of Mewar, gave him the title of Tapä (which means a real ascetic) in 1228 A.D. From this time, Nirgrantha Gaccha got another name of Tapä Gaccha.¹⁴² The saints of this Gaccha contributed considerably to the growth of Jainism. Later on, it was also divided into many branches. Vôiddha Pausälika Tapä-Gaccha started from Vijayacandra who was the pupil of Jagacandra Süri. From Devendra Suri, there started the Laghu Pausälika Tapä-Gaccha. Vijayacandra Suri was indolent in the performance of religious rites while Devendra Süri devoted himself to the performance of the purifying rites and contributed to the development of Jainism.¹⁴³ The images installed by the Äcäryas of this Gaccha are found in different parts of Rajasthan. But still, it remained strong in Sirohi,¹⁴⁴ Mewar and Jaisalmer.¹⁴⁵

(4) Añchala Gaccha : Vijayachanda Upädhyäya was the first person to start a Gaccha called Vidhipakÿha in order to support the pure rites. Once the merchant Koûï went to Pätan. While performing the rites of paâikkamaîa, he used the edge of his cloth in bowing down instead of using the 'mubhapaûûï' (a piece of cloth kept on the mouth by the Jaina ascetics). Kumärapäla asked him the reason of this. The Guru told him about Vidhi-paksha (the new sect) and then Kumärapäla used the edge of his cloth (called äñchala in Gujaräti) in saluting. Thence forward, Vidhi-pakÿha was called Äñchala Gaccha.¹⁴⁶

This Gaccha started in 1166 A.D. outside Rajasthan but it spread in Jaisalmer, Udaipur, Jïräualä in Sirohi State and Nagara in Marwar in the 15th century A.D. as known to us from the inscriptions. Several Äcäryas of this Gaccha composed important works and celebrated the consecration of many images.¹⁴⁷

(5) Pürîimiyä Gaccha and Särdha Pürîimiyä Gaccha : From Pürîimä, it seems to be named Pürîimiyä Gaccha. Särdha Pürîimiyä system started in 1179 A.D. The great king Kumärapäla once asked Hemachandra to call the leader of the Pürîimiyä Gaccha in order to inquire whether its followers acted according to the Jaina holy books or not. The leader of the Gaccha was called and questioned by Kumärapäla. But he could not give satisfactory answers, so the ascetics of the Gaccha were asked to go into exile. After the death of Kumärapäla, Sumatisiãha, the Ächärya of the Gaccha, came to Pätan. On being asked by the people about his Gaccha, he said, 'We belong to Särdha Pürîimiya Gaccha.' The followers of this system do not worship a Jaina shrine with fruits.¹⁴⁸ It originated outside Rajasthan but it gathered the followers here also. It remained very dominant in the 15th century in Jaisalmer and Sirohi States as it is known to us from the inscriptions. Its inscriptions are also found at Jodhpur and Nagaur in Marwar, Ajmer and Udaipur.¹⁴⁹

(6) Ägamika Gaccha : Áïlaguîasüri and Devabhadrasüri were the two Äcäryas who belonged to Pürîimiyä Gaccha. They joined the Äñcala Gaccha, but they soon left it and started their own sect. They taught that prayers should not be offered to Kÿetra Devatä. Besides this, they propounded some new theories and gave the name of Ägamika Gaccha to their section.¹⁵⁰ This sect either started in 1157 A.D., or 1193 A.D., but in Rajasthan it spread in the 15th century A.D. It was prevalent in Jaisalmer, Ajmer, Jaipur and Nagaur, Barmer and Osiä in Marwar State and Sirohi State.¹⁵¹

Kula Gacchas :

(1) Candra Gaccha : Candra Kula in course of time was converted into Candra Gaccha. Its name is also mentioned in the inscription of 1182 A.D. at Jälor in Marwar.¹⁵² It seems to have been in existence from 1125 A.D. to 1435 A.D. in Sirohi State as known to us from the inscriptions.¹⁵³

(2) Nägendra Gaccha : From Nägendra Kula, it became famous as Nägendra Gaccha. The preceptor of the founder of Aîahilapura-pätan named Áïlaguîasüri also belongs to this Gaccha. The earliest inscription of 1031 A.D. of this Gaccha in Rajasthan is found at Osiä in Marwar.¹⁵⁴ It became dominant at Jaisalmer from the 13th century to the 16th century. It was in existence at Pälï, Nagaur, Sirohi and Udaipur at this time.¹⁵⁵

(3) Nivôtti Gaccha : Probably Nivôitti Kula in course of time began to be called Nivôitti Gaccha. In the early inscriptions discovered in Sirohi State, Nivôitti-kula is mentioned,¹⁵⁶ but in the inscriptions of 1412 A.D. on the metal image of Sïtalanätha at Udaipur, Nivôitti Gaccha is mentioned.^157</