Chapter III

Life of MahÄvïRa

Mahävïra, the last Tïrthaõkara of the Jainas, is described as a supreme personality and acknowledged as ‘a great Brähmaîa’, ‘a great guardian’, ‘a great guide’, ‘a great preacher’, ‘a great pilot’, and ‘a great recluse’.¹ Around his personality there gathered a large number of men and women belonging to different castes and classes. His disciples and followers sincerely believed that their master whether walking or sitting, was gifted with supreme knowledge and vision of the Summum bonum. It is this earnest belief in the greatness of the Teacher that induced them to repose their trust in him and his words. To them, he stood as a living example of the highest human virtue and perfection. His life was to them a perennial source of light and inspiration. His sufferings and forbearance kept them steady in all their trials and tribulations, and his teachings and instructions were for them not ordinary words but utterances of one who saw the light of truth and was able to lead others along the path to enlightenment.

His Clan

‘Mahävïra’ was not the personal name of the religious teacher. He was better known to his contemporaries as Nigaîûha Näta-putta — Nigaîûha of the Näta or Näya clan. This name is composed of two separate epithets, Nigaîûha and Nätaputta, the first of which is religious and the second secular. He was Nigaîûha (Nirgrantha) in a literal sense—unclothed without and free from all worldly bonds and ties within. He was called Nätaputta because he was a scion of the Näya, Näta² or Jñätô, clan of the Kshatriyas. Just as the Buddha was called Áäkyaputta because he was a scion of Áäkya clan, so was Mahävïra called Nätaputta because he was a scion of the Näta Clan.

Mahävïra, the Tirthankara passed through in his own life-time five Kalyaîakas, which are the five noble events in the life of a Tïrthaõkara. These five Kalyäîakas (pious events) are : (1) Garbha-Kalyäîaka, (Conception - event), (2) Janma Kalyäîaka (Birth-event), (3) Tapa-Kalyäîaka (Austerity-event), (4) Jñäna-Kalyäîaka (Knowldge-event) and (5) Nirväîa Kalyäîaka (Liberation-event). These Kalyäîakas are auspicious and enîobling for the worldly beings at large, (1) When Tirthankara Mahavira was conceived, the mother saw dreams which pointed to the birth of a Tirthankara, by virtue of which the parents rejoiced and damsels took care of the mother. (2) When Tirthankara Mahavira was born, Indra eulogised the mother. The beauty of the child (Mahavira) was capturing. Indra, the celestial being saw the child with one thousand eyes and even then he did not get full satisfaction. Peace prevailed throughout. (3) In Tapa-Kalyäîaka, Mahävïra became detached from worldly pleasures and adopted the life of asceticism. (4) In the Jñäna-Kalyäîak, Mahavira attained omniscience as a result of the performance of Dhyana. And consequently, he delivered sermons in Samavasaraîa (religious assembly) and propagated the religions of Ahimsa by going to different places. By the effect of Kevalajñäa (omniscience), the environment was charged with spiritual atmosphere and nature and all the beings were affected in various ways. (5) The Nirväîa-Kalyäîaka of Mahavira means the attainment of Moksa (liberation) with the result that the body is relinquished¹.

His Birth and Parentage

The Jaina tradition places the birth of Mahävïra in the year 599 B.C. He belonged to Käáyapa gotra. He was the son of Kÿatriya Siddhärtha, also known as Áreyäãsa and Yaáäãáa, and of Kÿatriyäîi Triáalä, also known as Videhadattä and Priyakäriîi of the Vasiÿûha Gotra.³ His mother was the sister  (according to Digambaras, daughter) of Ceûaka, one of the kings of Vaiáalï. His parents, both lay followers of Päráva, were pious and chaste, virtuous and strict. They rigorously observed the principles of Jainism.

One incident regarding the birth of Mahävïra, which has been mentioned by some Ávetämbara works, can not be ignored. It is said that Mahävïra was first conceived in the womb of a Brähmin lady called Devänandä but was later transferred to the womb of Triáalä Khattiyänï. The Bhagavatï Sütra puts this episode into the mouth of Mahävïra himself. The incident as described there relates to Devänandï and Uÿabhadatta, the original parents, coming to see Mahävïra when the latter had become famous as a preacher. On seeing Mahävira milk began to flow from the breast of Devänandä due to the strong motherly love she bore towards him. Gotama asked his Master the reason for this upon which the latter admitted that he was the son of Devänandä. The text goes on to say that these original parents of Mahävïra accepted the order of their Jaina son.⁵

Curiously enough, the tradition about the transfer of the womb goes back to the beginning of the Christian era or even earlier, as it is found depicted in one of the Mathura Sculptures.⁶ This incident regarding the transfer of the womb has been discredited by the Digambaras.

Before birth, Mahävïra's mother is said to have seen a number of dreams. According to the Ávetämbaras, they numbered fourteen. In these fourteen dreams, according to the Kalpa Sütra, were seen (1) an elephant; (2) a bull; (3) a lion; (4) the anointing of the goodess Ári; (5) a garland; (6) the moon; (7) the sun; (8) a flag; (9) a vase; (10) a lotus lake; (11) an ocean; (12) a celestial abode; (13) a heap of jewels and (14) a flame. The Digambaras, who describe sixteen dreams, insert the visions of a throne of diamonds and rubies, and also of a great king of the gods dwelling below the earth. They also assert that she saw the sun before she dreamt about the moon. In place of a flag, they affirm that she saw two fishes. They also assert that she witnessed two vases instead of one, filled with pure water. The interpreters foretold that the child would become either a universal monarch or a Tirthankara possessing all possible knowledge.

Birthplace

The early scriptures of both the Ávetämbaras⁷ and the Digambaras⁸ agree that Kuîâapura or Kuîâagräma was the birthplace of Mahävïra. After examining the evidence contained in the Äcäräõga Sütra⁹, the Sütrakôitäõga¹⁰, the Kalpa Sütra¹¹, the Uttarädhyayana Sütra¹² and the Bhagavati-Sütra-Tïka¹³, it becomes clear that Jainism had a great stronghold in the area of Vaiáälï-Kuîâapura of the Videha country during this period and that Mahävïra was closely associated with this area. The name Visälie i.e. Vaiáälika was given to Mahävïra in the Sütra-Kôitäõga. Vaiáalika apparently means a native of Vaiáalï, the capital of Videha country. Thus it is clear that Mahävïra was born at Kuîâapura near Vaiáalï in the Videha country.

From the seventh century onwards, the gradual decline of Vaiáälï began and the Jainas came to forget the birthplace of the last Tïrthaõkara. Some Digambara Jaina works¹⁴ place Vaiáäli under Caeûaka in Sindhu-Viáaya or Sindhu-deáa. To them Tirabhukti became Sindhu-Viáaya. Evidently, however, Vaiáäli was not situated in Sindhu-Sauvïra. K. P. Jain¹⁵ suggests two reasons for this confusion. Firstly, it may be that the authors have equated Sindhu-deáa with Vôjideáa¹⁶, and, secondly, there might have been a confusion especially because Ujjayini in Avanti, too, was called Viáälä¹⁷, and there was the Sindhu river in the adjoining territory for which reason it was called Sindhu-deáa in the middle ages (8th to 15th centuries A.D.). Since the Digambara writers, K. P. Jain adds, lived more in the Ujjayinï region, they appear to have confused Ujjayini (which was also called Viáälä) with the Viáälä, little knowing that another Viáälä different from their own existed in Eastern India.

Efforts have recently been made to find out the birthplace of Lord Mahävïra, the son of the Jñätôka leader of Kshatriya-Kuîâapura or Kuîâalapura and the maternal son of a Lichchhavi chief. While the Digambara Jainas found a village called Kuîâalapura near Nälandä, the Ávetämbara Jainas found a site called Kshatriyakuîâa near the village Lachhwäd or Lachhuär in South Monghyr. These came to be regarded as the birthplaces of Lord Mahävïra by the respective sects. Temples and Dharmaáäläs were constructed and the Jaina pilgrims began to pour into these places. Thus while the real birthplace was forgotten, other places came to be recognized as such.

The present site, Kshatriyakuîâa, near Lachaväda, can not be the birthplace of Lord Mahävïra because it formed part of Aõga, and not of Videha. Modern Kÿatriyakuîâa is situated on the mountain while there are no references to mountains in connection with ancient Kÿatriyakuîâa of Kuîâapura in the Jaina scriptures. Near the present Kÿatriyakuîâa, no traces of such ancient places as Vaiáälï, Väîijyagräma, Kolläga-Sanniveáa and Karmäragräma are found. The nullaha near it is not the Gaîâaki river.

In the Mahävagga of the Buddhists, it has been said that Buddha, while sojourning at Kotiggäma, was visited by the courtezan Ambapäli and the Lichchhavis of the neighbouring capital, Vaiáalï. From Kotiggäma, he went to where the Nätikas lived. There he lodged in the Nätika Brick Hall. From there he went to Vaiáäli where he converted the general-in-chief (of the Lichchhavis), a lay disciple of the Nirgranthas. H. Jacobi has identified Koûiggäma of the Buddhists with Kuîâagäma of the Jainas. Apart from the similarity of the names, the reference to the Nätikas, apparently identical with the Jñätrka Kÿatriyas to whose clan Mahävïra belonged, and to Sïha, the Jaina, points to the same direction. Kuîâagräma, therefore, was probably one of the suburbs of Vaisälï, the capital of Videha. This conjecture is borne out by the name Vesälie, i.e. Vaïsälika given to Mahävïra in the Sütrakôitäõga. Vaiáälika apparently means a native of Vaiáälï; and Mahävïra could rightly be called as such when Kuîâagrama was a suburb of Vaiáälï.  The identification of Koûiggäma with Kuîâapura seems to be doubtful, and both seem to be independent villages.

A.F.R. Hoernle¹⁹ has clearly shown that Vaiáälï is the birthplace of Mahävïra. Väîiyagäma was another name of the well-known city of Vaiáälï, the capital of the Lichchhavi country. This city, commonly called Vaiáälï, occupied a very extended area, which included within its precinet, besides Veáälï proper, several other places such as Väîiyagäma and Kuîâagäma. They still exist as villages called Bäniyä and Basukuîâa.

The identification of Vaiáälï with the group of remains associated with the village of Basäôh in Muzaffarpur District, some forty km. to the north of Patna, is conclusively proved by the survival of the ancient name with only slight modifications; by the geographical bearings taken from Patna and other places; by the topographical details compared with the description recorded by Yuan Chwang, the Chinese pilgrim in the seventh century and by the finding on the spot of sealings of letters inscribed with the name Vaiáälï.²⁰

The identification of ancient Vaiáälï and Kuîâagäma or Kuîâapura with Basäôh and Basukuîâa respectively has been supported by several other scholars such as T. Bloch²¹, S. Stevenson²², N. L. Dey²³ and B. C. Law²⁴. Some of these scholars consider Kuîâapura, Väõiyagäma, Kolläga Sanniveáa and Karmägagräma to be the suburbs of Vaiáälï. This view does not seem to be correct. These were independent villages which may be identified with the modern villages of Basukuîâa, Baniyä, Koluä and Kümana Chaparägächï respectively. Brähmaîakuîâa and Kÿatriyakuîâa were the two wards of Kuîâapura, and between them was situated Bahuáäla Caitya. Vaiáälï and Kuîâapura were situated on the eastern bank of the Gaîâakï river, while Karmäragräma, Kolläga Sanniveáa,²⁵ Vänijyagräma and Dvipaläáa Caitya on the west.

Childhood

There are scriptural anecdotes, and miracles connected with the childhood of Mahävïra. It is stated in them that his birth was celebrated alike by gods and men, and it was received by his parents with the loftiest expectations. On the day of his birth, the prisoners in Kuîâapura were released. Festivals kept the whole town vibrant in mirth and joy for ten days after which many offerings were made to the gods.²⁶ His parents named him ‘Vardhamäna’²⁷ or the ‘Prosperous one’, because with his birth, the wealth, fame and merit of the family increased.

The two ascetics, Sanjaya and Vijaya, harboured some doubts  about the nature of some object. As their misgiving immediately disappeared at the sight of Tirthankara Mahävïra, they therefore gave him the name Sanmati in devotion.²⁸

The scriptures of both the Ávetämbaras and the Digambaras relate the legends of Mahävïra's supreme valour and how easily he excelled all his companions in strength and physical endurance during boyhood. One day, playing with his friends in the garden of his father, Mahävïra saw an elephant, mad with fury and secration flowing from his temples, rushing towards him. His companions, all boys, shocked and frightened at the sight of this imminent danger, deserted their comrade and ran away. Without losing a moment, Mahävïra made up his mind to face the danger squarely, went towards the elephant, caught hold of his trunk with strong hands and mounted his back at once. Because of controlling & pacifying on amuck elephant, he was called 'Atïvïra'.

Another legend tells how, when Mahävïra was playing with the same children at Ämbali pipalï (a sort of ‘tick’ or ‘tig’) among the trees, a god disguised as a dreadful snake appeared on a tree. All his companions were alarmed and fled away. Mahävïra, mustering courage, remained calm. He caught hold of the snake and threw it away. The god again decided to frighten the child by carrying him high up into the sky on his shoulders. Mahävïra, however, was not in the least alarmed, and seizing this opportunity of showing his superiority over the petty goods whacked from and pulled his hair so hard that he was only too ready to bend down and get rid of his obstreperous burden.²⁹ As Vardhman stood fast in the midst of dangers and fears, patiently enduring all hardships and calamities, adhering to the chosen rules of penance, and as he was wise, indifferent to pleasure and pain alike, rich in self-control and gifted with fortitude, the name Mahävïra was given to him. As he was devoid of love and hate, he was called Áramaîa.³⁰

In person, Mahävïra seems to have been handsome and impressive. He was possessed of a very keen intellect.³¹ The Kalpa Sütra³² mentions that from his very birth, he possessed ‘supreme, unlimited and unimpeded knowledge and intuition.’

Life of a Householder

On the question of Mahävïra's marriage, there is a fundamental difference of detail between the Digambara and the Ávetämbara accounts. The Digambara works³³ deny the fact of Mahävïra's marriage. On the other hand, in the Ávetämbara accounts,³⁴ there is an allusion to his marriage. In his youth, Mahävïra's was, however, given to contemplation and had begun to entertain plans of renunciation. His parents tried to solve the problem by marrying him off to a beautiful young woman, Yaáodä, a Kÿatriya lady of Kauîâinya Gotra, who soon presented him with a daughter named Aîojjä. Aîojjä was married to Jamälï, a Kÿatriya, who after becoming Mahävïra's follower created a schism. Mahävïra's grand- daughter, who belonged to the Kauáika Gotra, had two names : Seáhavatï and Yaáovatï.

Mahävïra's paternal uncle was Supäráva. His elder brother was Nandivardhana and his elder sister Sudaráanä. His parents died when he was thirty years old. Afterwards, his elder brother, Nandïvardhana, succeeded his father. With the permission of his brother and other authorities,³⁵ he carried out his long cherished resolve and became a monk with the usual rites. The Digambara works do not mention the names of his elder brother and elder sister. According to them, Mahävïra embarked upon his spiritual vocation during the lifetime of his parents. At first his parents were opposed to the idea of their delicately nurtured child undergoing all the hardships that fall to the lot of a houseless mendicant, but at last they acquiesced.

His Ascetic Life : His Twelve Years of Preparation

The Äcäräõga Sütra has preserved a sort of religious ballad giving an account of the years during which Mahävïra led a life of the hardest asceticism, thus preparing himself for the attainment of the highest spiritual knowledge (Kevala Jñana). The account given in the Kalpa Sütra substantially agrees with that of the Acäräõga Sütra. Both the Äcäräõga and the Kalpa Sütra narrate the story of his Sädhanä in such a manner as to suggest that he had to make superhuman efforts before he could aspire to obtain the coveted position of a Kevalin. It is remarkable that this account of Mahävïra Sädhanä given in the Äcäräõga and the Kalpa Sütra does not bring in Goáäla to form an episode. It is only from the Bhagavatï Sütra and the Uväsagadasäo that we know that the Äjïvika Teacher Goáäla lived in the company of Mahävïra for about six years during this ascetic period of Mahävïra's life.

 Mahävïra renounced the world at the age of thirty. Digambaras believe that Mahävïra abandoned clothes at the time of his initiation,whereas the Ávetämbaras hold that he abandoned them after thirteen months. The Äcäräõga Sütra gives the following account of his ascetic life.

For a year and a month since he renounced the world Mahävïra did not discard his clothes. Thereafter, he gave up his garments and became naked.³⁶ Even when he used his robe, he used it only in winter.³⁷ For more than four months, many living beings gathered on his body, crawled about it, and caused him pain.³⁸ Then he meditated, walking with his eye fixed on a square space before him of the length of a man. Many people assembled, shocked at the sight; they struck him and shouted. When asked, he gave no answer; when saluted he gave no response. He was struck by sinful people.³⁹

For more than a couple of years, he led a religious life; he lived in solitude, guarded his body, had intuition, and was calm. He carefully avoided injuring the meanest form of life. He did not use what was expressly prepared for him. He consumed clean food. He did not use another's robe, nor did he eat out of another's vessel. Disregarding contempt, he went with indifference to places where food was prepared. He was not desirous of eating delicious food, nor had he any longing for it. He neither rubbed his eyes nor scratched his body.⁴⁰

Mahävïra sometimes lodged in workshops, assembling places, shops; sometimes in factories or under a shed of straw. He sometimes took shelter in travellers' halls, garden-houses or towns; sometimes in a cemetery, in relinquished houses, or in the shade of a tree. At these places, he spent thirteen long years meditating day and night, exerting himself, strenuously. He did not seek sleep for the sake of pleasure; he would keep awake and sleep only a little, free from cares and desires. Waking up again, he would lie down exerting himself; going outside for once in a night, he would walk about for an hour. In these resting places, he had to face manifold calamities. Crawling or flying animals attacked him. Bad people, the guard of the village, or lance-bearers assaulted him. Always a master of himself, he endured these hardships as he wandered about, speaking but little. Ill treated by the wanderers, he kept himself in meditation, free from resentment.⁴¹ Always calm and cool-headed, he patiently bore the pains caused by, cold, fire, flies and gnats.⁴²

Mahävïra travelled in the pathless country of Rädha, in Vajrabhümi and Ávabhrabhümi, where he used most comfortless beds and seats. The rude natives of the place attacked him and unleashed their dogs to bite him, but he never kept them off. Being perfectly enlightened, he endured the abusive language of the rustics. Sometimes when he did not reach the village, the inhabitants met him on the outskirts and attacked him, saying ‘Get away from here.’ He was struck with a stick, fist, or lance; he was hit with a fruit, a clod, and a potsherd. When once he sat without moving his body, they cut his flesh, tore his hair or covered him with dust. They disturbed him in his religious meditation. Abandoning the care of his body, he endured all pains free from desire.⁴³

Mahävïra abstained from the indulgence of the flesh, and he was never attacked by any illness. Whether wounded or not, he never had any desire for any medical treatment. Purgatives and emetics, anointing of the body and bathing, shampooing and cleaning of the teeth were abjured by him, after he learned that the body is something unclean. In the cold season, he meditated in the shade, and in summer, he exposed himself to the heat. He lived on coarse food : rice, pounded jujube, and beans. Using these three kinds of food, he sustained himself for eight months. Sometimes he ate only on the sixth day, or the eighth, the tenth and the twelfth. Sometimes he ate stale food. He committed no sin himself, nor did he induce others to do so, nor did he consent to the sins of others. He meditated persevering in some posture, without any motion whatsoever; he meditated in mental concentration on the things above, below, beside, free from desires. He meditated free from sin and desire, not attached to sounds or colours; though still an erring mortal, he never acted carelessly.⁴⁴

Thus, like a hero at the head of a battle, he bore all hardships, and, remaining undisturbed, proceeded on the road to deliverance. Understanding what truth is and restraining his impulses for the purification of his soul, he finally liberated himself.⁴⁵

The account of Mahävïra's ascetic life given in the Kalpa Sütra is as follows. When the moon was in conjunction with the asterism Uttaraphälguni, he, after fasting for two and a half days without drinking water, put on a divine robe, and, quite alone, nobody else being present, palled out his hair and, abandoning his house, entered the state of houselessness.⁴⁶ For more than a year he wore clothes. Afterwards, he walked about naked, and accepted the alms in the hollow of his hand. Fore more than twelve years, he neglected his body and took no care of it. With exemplary equanimity he bore, experienced and suffered all pleasant or unpleasant occurrences arising from gods, men or animals.⁴⁷

Henceforth, the ascetic Mahävïra remained circumspect in speech, and movement. He guarded his thoughts, words, acts, senses and chastity. He moved about without wrath, pride, deceit and greed. He remained calm, tranquil, composed, liberated, free from temptations, without egoism, and without possessions. In short, he had cut off all earthly ties, and was not stained by any wordliness. As water does not adhere to a copper vessel, so sins found no place in him. His course was unobstructed like that of Life. Like the firmament, he needed no support, and like the wind he knew no obstacles. His heart was pure like the water in autumn. He remained unsoiled like a leaf of lotus. His senses were well protected like those of a tortoise. He lived single and alone like the horn of a rhinoceros. He was free like a bird. He was always waking like the fabulous bird, Bhäruîâa. He was valorous like an elephant, strong like a bull, unassailable like a lion, steady and firm like Mount Mandära, deep like an ocean, mild like the Moon, refulgent like the Sun and pure like the excellent gold. Like the earth, he patiently bore everything and like a well-kindled fire, he shone in his splendour.⁴⁸

 Out of all the eight months of summer and winter taken together, Mahävïra spent only a single night in villages and only five nights in towns. He was indifferent alike to the smell of ordure and of sandal, to straw and jewels, dirt and gold, and pleasure and pain. He was attached neither to this world nor to the world beyond. He desired neither life nor death. He arrived at the other shore of the Saãsära, and exerted himself for the suppression of the defilement of Karma.⁴⁹

With supreme knowledge, intuition, conduct, valour, uprightness, mildness, dexterity, patience, freedom from passions, control, contentment, and understanding, Mahävïra meditated on himself for twelve years. He moved on the supreme path to final liberation which is the fruit of veracity, control, penance and good conduct.⁵⁰

The Kalpa Sütra gives a list of forty-two rainy seasons spent by Mahävïra since he renounced the life of a householder. He stayed the first rainy season in Asthikagräma, three rainy seasons in Campä and Pôÿûicampä, twelve in Vaiáälï and Väîijyagräma, fourteen in Räjagôha and Nälandä, six in Mithilä, two in Bhadrikä, one in Älabhikä, one in Panitabhümi, one in Árävastï and the last one in the town of Päpä in king Hastipäla's office.⁵¹

B. C. Law⁵² thinks that the Kalpa Sütra list of places is worded according to the idea of succession and chronology. The idea of succession is suggested by two expressions : ‘the first rainy season in Asthikagräma’ and ‘the last rainy season in Päpä or Pävä’. Accordingly he suggests the names of places where Mahävïra spent the twelve rainy seasons of his ascetic life.⁵³ He stayed the first rainy season in Asthigräma, three rainy seasons in Campä and Pôÿûicampä and eight in Vaiáälï and Väîijyagräma. This view does not appear to be correct. Except the first and the last, the other places have not been mentioned in chronological order but in groups.

According to a commentary on the Kalpa Sütra, Asthigräma was formerly called Vardhamäna. It would perhaps be more correct to say that Asthigräma was the earlier name of Vardhamäna (modern Burdwan). But none need be surprised if Asthigräma was the same place as Hatthigäma (Hastigräma) which lay on the high road from Vaiáälï to Pävä (probably modern Kasiä).⁵⁴ Campä was the capital of Aõga which was conquered in Mahävïra's time by Áreîika Bimbisära and permanently annexed to Magadha. Its actual site is probably marked by two villages of Campänagara and Campäpura near Bhagalpur. Pôÿûicampa must have been a place near Campä. Vaiáälï is identified with modern Basärah in Vaiáälï, a district of Bihar. It was the chief seat of government of the Vôjji-Lichchavïs in Mahävïra's time. Väîiyagäma is the same as modern Bania, a village near Basärah.⁵⁵ Räjagôha (modern Räjgir) was the capital of Magadha in Mahävïra's time. Nälandä is identified with modern Bargaon, 10 km. to the north-west of Räjgïr in the district of Nälandä near Bihar (Biharsharif).⁵⁶ Mithilä was the capital of the prosperous kingdom of Videha. It is identified with Janakpur, a small town within the Nepal border, north of which the districts of Muzaffarpur and Darbhanga meet.⁵⁷ Badrikä, which is the same name as the Päli Bhaddiya, was an important place in the kingdom of Aõga.⁵⁸ It was visited by Buddha and is identified with modern Monghyr.⁵⁹

Älabhikä, which is the same as the Päli Älavi, is identified by A. Cunningham and A. F. R. Hoernle with Newal or Nawal in Unao  District in U.P., and by N. L. Dey with Aviwa, 40 km. north-east of Eatwah.⁶⁰ It lay between Sävatthi and Räjagiha.⁶¹ Paîitabhümi, which is the same as Paîiyabhümi, was a place in Vajrabhümi, a division of the pathless country of Räâha.⁶² Árävastï was the flourishing capital of the kingdom of Koáala in Mahävïra's time. It is identified with Sahet-Mahet on the bank of the Räpti.⁶³ Päpä, which is the same name as the Päli Pävä, was one of the chief seats of government of the Mallas. It was in Mahävïra's time one of the halting stations on the highway from Vaiáälï to Kuáïnärä and Kapilavastu.⁶⁴ A. Cunningham took it for the modern village, Padaraona, 18 km. to the N. N. E. of Kasiä.⁶⁵ It is identified with a place located at a distance of ten km. from Biharsharif in Patna District.⁶⁶

One important event of this period of Mahävïra's life was his meeting with Goáäla Maõkhaliputta, the head of the Äjïvika sect. From the account given in the Bhagavatï Sütra, it is known that during the second year of his ascetic life, Mahävïra stayed at Nälandä during the rainy season. At this time, Goáäla, who was then wandering about in the country showing pictures to the people at large, happened to arrive and put up there. Owing to Mahävïra's extraordinary self-restraint, his impressive habits of meditation, his capacity to prophesy things correctly and to the fact that a rich householder Vijaya, of Räjagôha had shown respect and hospitality to him, Goáäla was attracted, and wanted to be his disciple, but Mahävïra turned down his request. His prayer was not granted on two successive occasions even though the Master was entreated by the rich householders, Änanda and Sudaráana.

In the meantime, Mahävïra went to the settlement of Kolläga, at some distance from Nälandä, where he was hospitably greeted by the Brähmiî Bahula. (Kolläga is identified with the modern village Kolhuä.) Goáäla proceeded towards Räjagôha and its suburbs to find out Mahävïra but it vain. He came back to the weaver's shed of Nanda where he gave away his clothes, vessels, shoes, and pictures to a Brähmiî of the place, shaved off his hair and beared, and in despair departed in search of the Master. On his way, he came across Kolläga where he saw people praising Bahula's liberality towards Mahävïra.⁶⁷

Goáäla continued his search of Mahävïra and at last succeeded in finding him out at Paîiyabhümi. He again requested him with greater earnestness to accept him as his disciple. This time his request was granted, and both Mahävïra and his disciple Goáäla lived together for six years in Paîiyabhümi, practising asceticism. Afterwards, they started from Paîiyabhümi to Kürmagräma, and from Kürmagräma to Siddhärthagräma. Siddhärthagräma is probably the same as Siddhärthagräma in the Bïrbhum District.⁶⁸ While at Kürmagräma, they met an ascetic named Veÿayaîa who remained seated with upraised arms and upturned face in the glare of the Sun, while his body was swarmed with lice. Goáäla enquired whether he was a sage or a bed of lice. Vesayaîa became very angry and attempted to strike Goáäla with his supernormal powers. Mahävïra explained to him the severe ascetic discipline by which such powers could be obtained.

While at Siddhärthagräma, Goáäla uprooted sesame shrub and threw it away. Owing to a chance fall of rain, the shrub came to life again. From this, he jumped to the conclusion that all plants were capable of reanimation. He drew even further conclusion that not only plants, but in fact all living beings were capable of reanimation. His theory of reanimation and other doctrines did not find favour with Mahävïra who believed in the freedom of the will. Henceforth Goáäla severed his connection with Mahävïra and established a separate sect known as Äjïvika.⁶⁹

The incidental enumeration of the places visited by Mahävïra in the Bhagavatï Sütra during his ascetic life does not tally with those given in the Kalpa Sütra. The Bhagwati Sütra associates Nälandä, Räjagôiha, Paîiyabhümi, Siddhärthagräma and Kürmagräma with his early wanderings. The Uväsagadasäo mentions Väîijyagräma, Campä, Bäräîasï, Älabhi (Päli Alavi), Kampilyapura, Poläsapura, Räjagôha, and Árävastï as the places that were visited by Mahävïra. Both the Bhagavati Sütra and the Uväsaga-dasäo would have us believe that he received extraordinary respect from certain rich householders even long before his Jinahood. Bäräîasï is no other than modern Benaras. Kampillapura is identified with Kampil in the Farrukabad District.⁷⁰ Poläsapura has not been identified, but at the time of Mahävïra, it was within the kingdom of king Jiyasattu, the ruler of Koáala.

When Mahävïra was thirty years old, he renounced the world with the permission of his elder brother, Nandivardhana, and his relatives. With people pursuing him, he set out from Kuîâagräma on the tenth day of the dark of Märgasirÿa in winter by simply putting on a divine garment (Devadussa). He came to the garden of Näyasaîâavaîa situated in the north-east direction on the outskirts of Kuîâaggäma. At this place, the renunciation ceremony of Mahävïra was celebrated with great rejoicings. He is said to have given the first half of his garment to a Brähmaîa.

First Year

In the evening of the same day, Mahävïra left Näyasaîâa for Kumäragäma. There were two routes by which this journey was performed, one by water and the other by land. Mahävïra preferred the latter and reached Kumäragäma. Now this village is known by the name of Kammana-Chhaparä.⁷¹ Here, Mahävïra stood in meditation but was harassed by a cowherd who took him for a thief and wanted to hit him. Next day, Mahävïra proceeded to Kollïäga Sannivesa where he broke his fast. From there, he started for Moräga Sannivesa and reaching there, stayed in a hermitage. Next day, he left Moräga Sannivesa but again came back to this place after eight months. Then he proceeded to Atûhivagäma, where he put up in the shirne of Áülapäîï. Here Áülapäîï Jakkha is said to have caused Mahävïra many troubles but the latter bore them with his wonted equanimity and patience. Thus Mahävïra spent his first rainy season at Aûûhiyagäma.

Second Year

From Aûûhiyagäma, Mahävïra again came to Moräga Sannivesa where lived an ascetic named Achchhandaka. Then he started for Väcäla, which was divided into Uttaraväcäla and Dakkhinaväcäla, and between them flowed the rivers Suvannakülä and Ruppakülä. When Mahävïra was going from Dakkhiîaväcäla to Uttaraväcäla, the remaining half of his garment got entangled in the thorns on the bank of Suvannakülä. From this time onwards, Mahävïra became a naked monk. There were two routes to Uttaraväcäla, one through the hermitage named Kanakakhala and another from outside it. Mahävïra chose the former one which was more difficult. At Uttaraväcäla, he had to face a poisonous snake named Ârÿûiviÿa. From Kanakakhala, he travelled to Seyaviyä where he was received by King Paesi. T. W. Rhys Davids identifies this place with Satiabia and Vost with Basedita, twenty-five km. from Sahet-Mahet and ten km. from Balarampur.⁷² Mahävïra arrived at Surabhipura from Seyaviyä after crossing the Ganges, and afterwards proceeded to Thüîäka Sannivesa where he stood in meditation. The place was situated in the country of Mallas to the north-west of Patna on the right bank of the Gaîâakï.⁷³ From here, Mahävïra proceeded to Räyagiha and sojourned in a weaver's shed in Nälandä where he passed the second rainy season. Here Goáäla met him and the two left for Kolläga together.

Third Year

From Kolläga, Mahävïra and Goáäla came to Sunnakhälaya and then to Bambhaîagäma. This Bambhaîagäma lay in a route from Räjagrha to Campä.⁷⁴ From this place, they reached Campä where Mahävïra spent the third rainy season.

Fourth Year

From Campä, Mahävïra and Goáäla arrived at Käläya Sannivesa and thence to Pattakälaya. At both these places, Goáäla was insulted by people for his misbehaviour. Then, both came to Kumäräya Sannivesa where Mahävïra practised meditation in the garden, Camparamaîijja. Then they proceeded to Coräga Sannivesa where they were taken to be spies and were taken prisoners. Coräga Sannivesa may be identified with Choreya in Lohardugga District in Bengal.⁷⁵ From this place, they travelled to Piûûhicampä where Mahävïra passed the fourth rainy season.

Fifth Year

From Piûûhicampä, Mahävïra and Goáäla proceeded to Kayaõgalä, now identified with Kañkajol in Santhal Parganä in Bihar.⁷⁶ At this place, some ascetics were staying with their families. Goáäla is known to have misbehaved with them and was therefore punished. Then both came to Sävatthi and, later, to Haledduga. Here under a big turmeric tree Mahävïra stood in meditation. His feet are said to have been burnt by fire. Meditation over, both proceeded to Naõgala where Mahävïra stood in meditation again in the Väsudeva temple. Goáäla was punished once again for his misdemeanour. Then, they arrived at Avattagäma where Mahävïra spent his time in meditation in the Baladeva temple and Goáäla was taken to task for his misbehaviour. Continuing their travels in this region, they reached Coräya Sannivesa from where they journeyed to Kalambuka Sannivesa. Here both were tied by Kälahasti and were beaten; later on, they were set at liberty by Kälahasti's brother, Megha, who recognized Mahävïra. Then they journeyed to the country of Läâha where Mahävïra had to endure various kinds of painful sufferings. Läâha or Räâha comprise the modern districts of Hooghly, Howrah, Bankura, Burdwan, and the eastern part of Midnapore.⁷⁷ From this place, they moved on towards Punnahalasa where some robbers made a dastardly attempt on Mahävïra's life. Undaunted, they travelled to the city of Bhaddiya where Mahävïra passed the fifth rainy season.

Sixth Year

From Bhaddiya, both Mahävïra and Goáäla travelled to Kayalisamägama, and then onward to Jambusaîâa and Tambäya Sannivesa. Jambusa­­­­­­î­âa was located between Ambagäma and Bhoganagara on a route from Vaiáäli to Kuáïnärä.⁷⁸ Then they arrived at Küiya Sannivesa where, suspected of being spies, they were kept as prisoners, but were later released at the intercession of two sisters, Vijayä and Pragalbhä. Küiya or Küpiya is identified with a place located at a distance of ten km. from the Khalïläbäda Mehadävala road in Khalïläbad Tehsil of Âhühabastï District.⁷⁹

Now Goáäla and Mahävïra parted with each other. Mahävïra left for Vaiáälï where he stood in a blacksmith's shed. The blacksmith, seeing Mahävïra naked, ran to hit him. Afterwards, Mahävïra proceeded to Gämäya Sannivesa where he was honoured by Vibhelaka Jakkha. From this place, he travelled to Sälisïsayagäma where the demoness Kaûapütanä caused him much trouble. After six months, Goáäla again joined Mahävïra at this place. Finally, Mahävïra visited Bhaddiya in order to spend the sixth rainy season there.

Seventh Year

Then Mahävïra and Goáäla travelled together in the country of Magadha. In the course of the journey, Mahävïra decided to spend the seventh rainy season at Älabhiyä.

Eighth Year

From Älabhiya, Mahävïra and Goáäla set out for Kuîâäga Sannivesa. At this place, Mahävïra stood in meditation in the temple of Väsudeva. Goáäla was again beaten for his bad manners. Then they visited Maddanagäma and stayed in the Baladeva temple. Afterwards they came to Bahusälagagäma where Mahävïra was harassed by Sälejjä Väîamäntarï. From this place, they proceeded to  the capital Lohaggalä where the royal servants suspected them to be spies and caught them. Later on they were set free at the intercession of Uppala who is said to have arrived there from Aûûhiyagäma. Lohaggalä may be identified with Lohardagä situated in the region which forms the central and north-western portion of the Chhota Nagpur Division.⁸⁰ From Lohaggalä, they went to Purimatäla where Mahävïra stood in meditation in the garden of Sagaâamuha. Purimatäla may be identified with Purulia in Bihar.⁸¹ From there, they travelled to Unîäga and on to Gobhümi. At last they reached Räyagiha in order to pass the eighth rainy season.

Ninth Year

From Räyagiha, Mahävïra and Goáäla again set out for a Läâha country which is non-Aryan. In the course of this journey, they passed through Vajjabhümi and Subbhabhümi, where Mahävïra had to endure all sorts of tortures. Sometimes people surrounded him and set their dogs upon him. Mahävïra got no shelter in this region. He passed the ninth rainy season in this country.

Tenth Year

Mahävïra and Goáäla then travelled to Siddhatthapura and Kummagäma. Soon they returned to Siddhatthapura. It may be the same as Siddhangräma in Birbhum District.⁸² Severing his relations with Mahävïra again, Goáäla now went to Sävatthi while Mahävïra visited Vaiáälï where the republican chief Saõkha saved him from the trouble caused by the local children. From here, Mahävïra crossed the river Gaîâai by boat and reached Vaîiyagäma. He then proceeded to Sävatthi where he passed the tenth rainy season.

eleventh Year

From Sävatthi, Mahävïra set out for Sänulaûûhiyagäma, which may be identified with Dalabhum in Singhbhum District in Bengal.⁸³ He then went to Peâhälagäma and stood in meditation in the garden of Peâhäla in the shrine of Poläsa. In this region of the Mlechchhas, Mahävïra had to suffer much. He travelled later to Väluyagäma, Subhoma, Suchchhettä, Malaya and finally on to the Hatthisïsa. At all these places, apparently located in the north-west part of Orissa, Mahävïra had to undergo extreme physical torture. Afterwards he reached Tosali where he was suspected to be a robber and hit hard. The place is now identified with Dhauli and some neighbouring places in Orissa. Then he travelled to Mosali where he was caught under the suspicion of a dacoit and brought before the king, but he was soon released. Mahävïra again returned to Tosali and found himself in great troubles. He was actually to be hanged here but was luckily rescued by Tosali Kshatriya. Then he arrived at Siddhatthapura from where he proceeded to Vayaggäma. For a period of six months, he had to bear great hardship at all these places. From Vayaggäma, he proceeded to Älabhiyä and then to Seyaviyä and Sävatthi. At last, passing through Koáämbï, Vänärasi, Räyagiha and Mithilä he spent the eleventh rainy season at Vaiáälï.

Twelfth Year

From Vaiáälï, Mahävïra came to Suãsgumärapura which is identified with a hilly place near Chunar in Mirzapur District.⁸⁴ He proceeded thence to Bhogapura, which lay between Pävä and Vaiáälï,⁸⁵ and to Nandiggäma, from where he travelled to Meîâhiyagäma. Afterwards he proceeded to Koáämbi, where he received his alms after a period of four months. From Koáämbi, he set out for Sumangalgäma and then for Pälayagäma. Finally, he reached Campä for spending the twelfth rainy season.

Thirteenth Year

From Campä Mahävïra came to Jambhiyagäma. Kalyana Vijaya identifies it with Jambhigaon near the river Damodar in the Hazaribagh District,⁸⁶ but it must be located somewhere near modern Päväpuri in Bihar.⁸⁷ From this place, he reached Meîâhiyagäma. Then he visited Chhamäîigäma where a cow-herd is said to have thrust iron nails into his ears. In this condition, Mahävïra is said to have reached Majjhima Pävä where the nails were removed from his ears.

Mahävïra's Penance in a Cemetery at Ujjain

According to the Ávetämbaras, Mahävïra was born with three kinds of knowledge : Matijñäna, Árutajñäna and Avadhijñäna. He also gained the fourth kind of knowledge, Manaêparyäyajñäna, by which he knew the thoughts of all sentient beings possessing the five senses, some time after his initiation to asceticism. According to the Digambaras, Mahävïra got up for food after two days he went to Kulapura where its ruler, Kulädhipa, held him in high esterm, washed his feet with his own hands, and, having walked round him three times, offered him rice and milk. There Mahävïra took his first meal Päraîä after fasting for two days. He returned to the forest and wandered about in it performing twelve kinds of penance. At last he visited Ujjayinï and did penance in a cemetery there when Rudra and his wife tried in vain to interrupt him Mahavira Conquesed this Pariÿuha (afflition).

Kevalajñäna

The period of twelve years spent in penance and meditation was not fruitless, for in the thirteenth year, Mahävïra at last attained supreme knowledge and final deliverance from the bonds of pleasure and pain. This most important moment of the Tirthankara's life has been described this :

“During the thirteenth year, in the second month of summer, in the fourth fortnight, the light (fortnight) of Vaiáäkha, on its tenth day, called Suvrata, while the moon was in conjunction with the asterism Uttara-Phalguni, when the shadow had turned towards the east, and the first wake was over, outside of the town Jômbhikagräma on the northern bank of the river Ôjupälikä, in the field of the householder Sämäga, in a north-eastern direction from an old temple, not far from a Säl tree, in a squatting position with joined heels exposing himself to the heat of the Sun, with the knees high and the head low, in deep meditation, in the midst of abstract meditation, he reached Nirväîa, the complete and full, the unobstructed, unimpeded, infinite and supreme, best knowledge and intuition, called Kevala.”

When the venerable Mahävïra had become an Arhat and a Jina, he was a Kevalin, omniscient and comprehending all objects; he knew all the conditions of the world, of gods, men and demons; whence they come, where they go, whether they are born as men or animals, or become gods or hell-beings; their food, drink, doings, desires, open and secret deeds, their conversation and gossip and the thoughts of their minds; he saw and knew all the conditions in the whole world of all living beings.⁸⁹

At this time, Mahävïra was forty-two years old; and from this age, he entered upon a new stage of life, that of a religious teacher and the head of a sect called the Nirgranthas, ‘free from fetters’. He went from place to place for the propagation of his doctrine, and for making converts. His first declaration about himself aroused confidence among his followers and he urged them to follow his example in their own life. The Buddhist texts give us an idea of his first declaration which is as follows :

I am all-knowing and all-seeing, and possessed of an infinite knowledge. Whether I am walking or standing still, whether I sleep or remain awake, the supreme knowledge and intuition are present with me – constantly and continuously. There are, O Nirgranthas, some sinful acts you have done in the past, which you must now wear out by this acute form of austerity. Now that here you will be living restrained in regard to your acts, speech, and thought, it will work as the non-doing of Karma for future. Thus, by the exhaustion of the force of past deeds through penance and the non-accumulation of new acts, (you are assured) of the stoppage of the future course, of rebirth from such stoppage, of the destruction of the effect of Karma, from that, of the destruction of pain, from that, of the destruction of mental feelings, and from that, of the complete wearing out of all kinds of pain.”⁹⁰

First Sermon

When Mahävïra attained kevalahood, a Samavaáaraîa (religious conference) was held on the bank of the river Ujjuväliyä, but it is said that the first discourse of Mahävïra remained unsuccessful. Then after traversing twelve yojanas, he is said to have returned to Majjhima Pävä where the second Samavaáaraîa was convened in the garden of Mahäsena. Here after a long discussion on various religious and philosophic points, Mahävïra converted to Jainism the eleven learned Brähmaîas who had gone there to attend the great sacrifice being performed by a rich Brähmaîa named Somila.

According to the Digambara scriptures, even after obtaining Kevalajñäna (Enlightenment) at Jômbhikagräma, Mahävïra did not break his vow of silence taken from the time of Pravrajyä, and wandering continuously for sixtysix days in silence, reached Räjagôha, the capital of Magadha. Outside the city of Räjagôha, at Vipuläcala where he settled, a Samavaáaraîa was held for his first sermon. First of all he converted eleven learned Brähmaîas, including Indrabhüti Gautama, who were known as his disciples (Gaîadharas). King Áreîika with the members of the royal family, including his queen Cetanä, and the whole army came to the Samavaáaraîa to pay homage to Mahävïra as well as to listen to his first sermon. It is said that the king asked him several questions concerning the faith and all of them were satisfactorily answered. In view of the all embracing chapter  of Mahävïraá principles the gain Äcarya Samanta bhadra (2nd cent. A.D.) called the religion of Mahävïra a 'Sarvadaya' Tirtha, which terms is now-a-days used after Gandhiji.

Eleven Disciples (Gaîadharas)

First of all, Mahävïra by his preaching converted to Jainism the eleven learned Brähmaîas who became his disciples, his eleven Gaîadharas. They listened to Mahävïra's discourses and heard the gentle, thoughtful answers he gave to all questions. Finally, being convinced of the truth of his views, they became his disciples or Gaîdharas. The eldest was Indrabhüti, then followed Agnibhüti, Väyubhüti, Vyakta, Sudharmä, Maîâikata, Mauryaputra, Akampita, Acalabhrätä, Metärya and Prabhäsa. The first three Gaîadharas were brothers and belonged to the Gautama Gotra, and were residents of Gobbaragäma. The fourth belonged to the Bhäradväja Gotra and was the resident of Kolläga Sannivesa; the fifth belonged to the Agni Veáyäyana Gotra and was the resident of Kolläga Sannivesa; the sixth belonged to the Vasisûha Gotra and was the resident of Moriya Sannivesa; the seventh belonged to the Käáyapa Gotra and was the resident of Moriya Sannivesa; the eighth belonged to the Gautama Gotra and was the resident of Mithilä; the ninth belonged to the Härïta Gotra and was resident of Koáala; the tenth belonged to the Kauâinya Gotra and was the resident of Tuõgika Sannivesa; and the eleventh belonged to the same Gotra and was the resident of Räjagôha. These Gaîadharas were all Brähmaîa teachers, and all except Indrabhütri and Sudharmä, died during the life-time of Mahävïra. They are said to have been versed in the twelve Aõgas, the fourteen Pürvas and the whole Gaîipiâaga (the basket of the Gaîis).⁹¹

The Digambaras have some different names for these Gaîadharas and give a different account of Gautama's conversion. According to Guîabhadra⁹² the eleven names are as follows : Indrabhüti, Väyubhüti, Agnibhüti, Sudharmä, Maurya, Maundra, Putra, Maitreya, Akampana, Andhavela or Anvacela and Prabhäsa. Indrabhüti became a very learned Pandita and grew extremely vain of his learning. One day, however, an old man appeared and asked him to explain a certain verse to him, but had immediately afterwards become so lost in meditation that he could get no explanation of it from the saint, and yet he felt that he could not live unless he knew the meaning. The verse contained references to Käla and Dravya, Pañca Astikäya, Tattva and Leáyä, not one of which could Gautama understand, but being too true a scholar to pretend to a knowledge which he did not possess, he sought out Mahävïra to ask for an explanation. The moment he was in the presence of the great ascetic, all his pride in his fancied learning disapproved and he besought Mahävïra to teach him. He not only became a convert himself, but took over with him his five hundred pupils and his three brothers.⁹³ In the Digambara Jain Paûûävalïs, Sudharmä comes after Indrabhüti, and Sudharmä was also known by the name of Lohärya.

One significant fact about these Gaîadharas is that all of them were Brahmins, which proves that among the Brahmins also an ideological revolution was taking place and compelling them to give up their traditional grooves of thoughts advocating ritualism. Further, it was this intelligentsia that predominantly included the Brahamins who helped him spread his faith.

Four Orders of the Jaina Community (Saãgha)

Mahävïra possessed a unique power of organization. By his wonderful personality and organizational skill, he attracted a large number of people, both men and women, to be his disciples. From them therefore grew the four orders of his community : monks, nuns, laymen, and laywomen.

The chief among his followers were the fourteen thousand monks placed under the charge of Indrabhüti Gautama. Mahävïra resolved to combat by regulations and organization those special temptations and dangers which beset ascetics in their wandering life. For this purpose, he divided fourteen thousand monks into nine regular schools called Gaîas, placing each school under the headship of one of his chief disciples or Gaîadharas. The leading Gaîadhara had five hundred monks under him, but some of the others had only three hundred or two hundred and fifty. These Gaîadharas were to guide and instruct separate groups of Nirgranthas.

Besides the fourteen thousand monks, a great multitude of women followed Mahävïra, and of these some thirtysix thousand actually renounced the world and became nuns. At their head was Chandanä, a first cousin of Mahävïra's, or, as other accounts have it, his aunt.

Mahävïra's third Order consisted of laymen numbering about one hundred and fiftynine thousand with Áaõkha Áataka at their head. These laymen were householders who could not actually renounce the world but they at least could observe the five small vows called aîuvrata. The similarity of their religious duties, differing not in kind but in degree, brought about the close union of laymen and monks. Most of these regulations meant to govern the conduct of laymen were intended apparently to make them participate, in a measure and for some time, in the merits and benefits of monastic life without obliging them to renounce the world altogether. “The genius for organization which Mahävïra possessed” as S. Stevenson rightly observes, “is shown in nothing more clearly than in the formation of this and the order of laymen. These two organizations gave the Jaina a root in India that the Buddhists never obtained, and that root firmly planted amongst the laity enabled Jainism as we have seen, to withstand the storm that drove Buddhism out of India.”⁹⁴

Their fourth and last Order consisted of devout laywomen or Árävikäs numbering about three hundred and fiftyeight thousand with Sulasä and Revatï as their heads. Their household duties prevented their becoming nuns but still they served the ascetics in many ways. Thus Mahävïra converted a large number of people to Jainism.

The Digambaras believe that Mahävïra did not travel alone but that wherever he went he was accompanied by all monks and nuns who had entered his Order. He preached in a language which they call An-aksharï, which was intelligible to all.

Places of Rainy Seasons (CaturmÄsa)

The Jaina Kalpasütra gives the names of the places where Mahävïra spent one or more rainy seasons since he became an ascetic after renouncing the world. He stayed the first rainy season in Aÿûhikagräma, three rainy seasons in Campä and Pôÿûichampä, twelve in Vaiáäli and Vaîijagräma, fourteen in Räjagôha and Nälandä, six in Mithilä, two in Bhadrikä, one in Älabhikä, one in Paîitabhümi, one in Árävastï and the last one in the town of Päpä in king Hästipäla's office.⁹⁶ This list is neither exhaustive nor chronological though it covers broadly the fortytwo years of his itinerary. It is rather difficult to distinguish the places he visited during and after the period of his ascetic life merely on the basis of the list supplied by the Kalpa Sütra. There is no doubt that the Kalpa Sütra's authority on the itinerary of Mahävïra is ancient and fairly reliable. It gives us a fair idea of the area over which he wandered propagating his faith. When the places are correctly identified, we come to know that this area roughly covered the modern state of Bihar and some parts of Bengal and U.P.

The late Jaina works describe Mahävïra's itinerary exhaustively and chronologically. After attaining Kevalajñäna, Mahävïra spent no less than thirty rainy seasons at the following places yearwise – (1) Räjagôha, (2) Vaiáäli, (3) Väîijyagräma, (4) Räjagôha, (5) Väîijyagräma, (6) Räjagôha, (7) Räjagôha, (8) Vaiáäli, (9) Vaiáäli, (10) Räjagôha, (11) Väîijyagräma, (12) Räjagôiha, (13) Räjagôiha, (14) Champä, (15) Mithilä, (16) Vänijyagräma, (17) Räjagôha, (18) Väîijyagräma, (19) Vaiáälï, (20) Vaiáälï, (21) Räjagôha, (22) Nälandä, (23) Vaiáälï, (24) Vaiáälï, (25) Räjagôha, (26) Nälandä, (27) Mithilä, (28) Mithilä, (29) Räjagôha, and (30) Äpäpäpurï.⁹⁷

It may be note here that the Digambaras do not subswill to the view of Caturmësa in rainy seasons in respect of the Tïrthaõkara at differents places for the propagation of religion and upliftment of the masses. Hence Mahavira made Vihära at different places! But access, to svetambaras Mahavira followed the rule of staying at one place in rainy seasons. Hence the above are the places where Mahavira spent one or more rainy seasons !

Influence on lay followers (Árävakas)

First of all, Mahävïra seems to have tried to attract those householders who formed a large body of lay disciples by laying down certain rules of conduct. Gautama Indrabhüti was taken to task by the Master when he sought to claim a difference in degree in this respect between a recluse and a lay disciple.⁹⁸ The gift of supernormal vision was no monopoly of any Order or caste or sex. In this matter, Mahävïra made no distinction between men and men, or between men and women. He did not enjoin one set of rules for male recluses and another for those of the fair sex, one set of rules for male lay disciples and another for female lay disciples. When he wandered about in the country, he was accompanied by male as well as female recluses.

Mahävïra not only taught his followers to undergo penances and live a life of restraint in all possible ways but also watched how they had been progressing. He also encouraged them in the study of the Pürvas and in developing their power of reasoning and arguing. The Buddhist records themselves attest that there were some able and powerful disputants among the Nirgrantha recluses and disciples.⁹⁹

The lay disciples of Mahävïra and the lay supporters of his Order, both male and female, are all mentioned as persons of opulence and influence. At the same time, they were noted for their piety and devotion. Their contemporaries, including kings and princes, consulted them on many affairs and matters. Among them, Änanda and his wife Áivanandä from Vänijagräma, Kämadeva and his wife Bhadrä from Campä, Cülanipriya and his wife Áyäma, Süradeva and his wife Dhanyä from Bäräîasï, Cullasataka and his wife Puÿyä from Kampilyapura, Kundakolita and his wife from Kampilyapura, Sardalaputra and his wife Agnimiträ from Poläsapura and Mahasataka from Räjagôha and Nandinïpriya and his wife Aávinï, and Salatipriya and his wife Phälguni were the most well-known lay disciples of Mahävïra.

The Päli Upäli Sütra¹⁰⁰ introudces us to the rich householder Upäli of Balakagräma, near Nälandä, who was a lay disciple of Mahävïra and a liberal supporter of the recluses of his Order, both male and female. We are indeed told that a very large number of the inhabitants of Balakagräma, headed by Upäli, became lay disciples of Mahävïra. The banker Môgära or Môgadhara of Árävastï, father-in-law of the Buddhist lady Visäkhä, is mentioned as a lay disciple of Mahävïra and a lay supporter of the Nirgrantha recluses.