Chapter
III
Life of
MahÄvīRa
Mahävīra, the last Tīrthaõkara of
the Jainas, is described as a supreme personality and acknowledged as a great
Brähmaîa, a great guardian, a great guide, a great preacher, a great
pilot, and a great recluse.1 Around his personality there
gathered a large number of men and women belonging to different castes and
classes. His disciples and followers sincerely believed that their master
whether walking or sitting, was gifted with supreme knowledge and vision of the
Summum bonum. It is this earnest belief in the greatness of the Teacher
that induced them to repose their trust in him and his words. To them, he stood
as a living example of the highest human virtue and perfection. His life was to
them a perennial source of light and inspiration. His sufferings and forbearance
kept them steady in all their trials and tribulations, and his teachings and
instructions were for them not ordinary words but utterances of one who saw the
light of truth and was able to lead others along the path to enlightenment.
His
Clan
Mahävīra was not the personal name
of the religious teacher. He was better known to his contemporaries as Nigaîûha
Näta-putta Nigaîûha of the Näta or Näya clan. This name is composed of two
separate epithets, Nigaîûha and Nätaputta, the first of which is religious and
the second secular. He was Nigaîûha (Nirgrantha) in a literal senseunclothed
without and free from all worldly bonds and ties within. He was called Nätaputta
because he was a scion of the Näya, Näta2 or Jņätô, clan of the Kshatriyas.
Just as the Buddha was called Áäkyaputta because he was a scion of Áäkya clan,
so was Mahävīra called Nätaputta because he was a scion of the Näta
Clan.
Mahävīra, the Tirthankara passed
through in his own life-time five Kalyaîakas, which are the five noble events in
the life of a Tīrthaõkara. These five Kalyäîakas (pious events) are : (1)
Garbha-Kalyäîaka, (Conception - event), (2) Janma Kalyäîaka (Birth-event), (3)
Tapa-Kalyäîaka (Austerity-event), (4) Jņäna-Kalyäîaka (Knowldge-event) and (5)
Nirväîa Kalyäîaka (Liberation-event). These Kalyäîakas are auspicious and
enîobling for the worldly beings at large, (1) When Tirthankara Mahavira was
conceived, the mother saw dreams which pointed to the birth of a Tirthankara, by
virtue of which the parents rejoiced and damsels took care of the mother. (2)
When Tirthankara Mahavira was born, Indra eulogised the mother. The beauty of
the child (Mahavira) was capturing. Indra, the celestial being saw the child
with one thousand eyes and even then he did not get full satisfaction. Peace
prevailed throughout. (3) In Tapa-Kalyäîaka, Mahävīra became detached from
worldly pleasures and adopted the life of asceticism. (4) In the Jņäna-Kalyäîak,
Mahavira attained omniscience as a result of the performance of Dhyana. And
consequently, he delivered sermons in Samavasaraîa (religious assembly) and
propagated the religions of Ahimsa by going to different places. By the effect
of Kevalajņäa (omniscience), the environment was charged with spiritual
atmosphere and nature and all the beings were affected in various ways. (5) The
Nirväîa-Kalyäîaka of Mahavira means the attainment of Moksa (liberation) with
the result that the body is relinquished1.
His Birth
and Parentage
The Jaina tradition places the birth
of Mahävīra in the year 599 B.C. He belonged to Käáyapa gotra. He was the
son of K˙atriya Siddhärtha, also known as Áreyäãsa and Yaáäãáa, and of
K˙atriyäîi Triáalä, also known as Videhadattä and Priyakäriîi of the Vasi˙ûha
Gotra.3 His mother was the sister (according to Digambaras, daughter) of
Ceûaka, one of the kings of Vaiáalī. His parents, both lay followers of Päráva,
were pious and chaste, virtuous and strict. They rigorously observed the
principles of Jainism.
One incident regarding the birth of
Mahävīra, which has been mentioned by some Ávetämbara works, can not be ignored.
It is said that Mahävīra was first conceived in the womb of a Brähmin lady
called Devänandä but was later transferred to the womb of Triáalä Khattiyänī.
The Bhagavatī Sütra puts this episode into the mouth of Mahävīra himself.
The incident as described there relates to Devänandī and U˙abhadatta, the
original parents, coming to see Mahävīra when the latter had become famous as a
preacher. On seeing Mahävira milk began to flow from the breast of Devänandä due
to the strong motherly love she bore towards him. Gotama asked his Master the
reason for this upon which the latter admitted that he was the son of Devänandä.
The text goes on to say that these original parents of Mahävīra accepted the
order of their Jaina son.5
Curiously enough, the tradition
about the transfer of the womb goes back to the beginning of the Christian era
or even earlier, as it is found depicted in one of the Mathura
Sculptures.6 This incident regarding the
transfer of the womb has been discredited by the
Digambaras.
Before birth, Mahävīra's mother is
said to have seen a number of dreams. According to the Ávetämbaras, they
numbered fourteen. In these fourteen dreams, according to the Kalpa
Sütra, were seen (1) an elephant; (2) a bull; (3) a lion; (4) the anointing
of the goodess Ári; (5) a garland; (6) the moon; (7) the sun; (8) a flag; (9) a
vase; (10) a lotus lake; (11) an ocean; (12) a celestial abode; (13) a heap
of jewels and (14) a flame. The Digambaras, who describe sixteen dreams, insert
the visions of a throne of diamonds and rubies, and also of a great king of the
gods dwelling below the earth. They also assert that she saw the sun before she
dreamt about the moon. In place of a flag, they affirm that she saw two fishes.
They also assert that she witnessed two vases instead of one, filled with pure
water. The interpreters foretold that the child would become either a universal
monarch or a Tirthankara possessing all possible
knowledge.
Birthplace
The early scriptures of both the
Ávetämbaras7 and the Digambaras8 agree that Kuîâapura or Kuîâagräma
was the birthplace of Mahävīra. After examining the evidence contained in the
Äcäräõga Sütra9, the
Sütrakôitäõga10, the Kalpa
Sütra11, the Uttarädhyayana
Sütra12 and the
Bhagavati-Sütra-Tīka13, it becomes clear that Jainism had
a great stronghold in the area of Vaiáälī-Kuîâapura of the Videha country during
this period and that Mahävīra was closely associated with this area. The name
Visälie i.e. Vaiáälika was given to Mahävīra in the
Sütra-Kôitäõga. Vaiáalika apparently means a native of Vaiáalī,
the capital of Videha country. Thus it is clear that Mahävīra was born at
Kuîâapura near Vaiáalī in the Videha country.
From the seventh century onwards,
the gradual decline of Vaiáälī began and the Jainas came to forget the
birthplace of the last Tīrthaõkara. Some Digambara Jaina works14 place Vaiáäli under Caeûaka in
Sindhu-Viáaya or Sindhu-deáa. To them Tirabhukti became Sindhu-Viáaya.
Evidently, however, Vaiáäli was not situated in Sindhu-Sauvīra. K. P. Jain15 suggests two reasons for this
confusion. Firstly, it may be that the authors have equated Sindhu-deáa with
Vôjideáa16, and, secondly, there might have
been a confusion especially because Ujjayini in Avanti, too, was called
Viáälä17, and there was the Sindhu river in
the adjoining territory for which reason it was called Sindhu-deáa in the middle
ages (8th to 15th centuries A.D.). Since the Digambara writers, K. P. Jain
adds, lived more in the Ujjayinī region, they appear to have confused Ujjayini
(which was also called Viáälä) with the Viáälä, little knowing that another
Viáälä different from their own existed in Eastern India.
Efforts have recently been made to
find out the birthplace of Lord Mahävīra, the son of the Jņätôka leader of
Kshatriya-Kuîâapura or Kuîâalapura and the maternal son of a Lichchhavi chief.
While the Digambara Jainas found a village called Kuîâalapura near Nälandä, the
Ávetämbara Jainas found a site called Kshatriyakuîâa near the village Lachhwäd
or Lachhuär in South Monghyr. These came to be regarded as the birthplaces of
Lord Mahävīra by the respective sects. Temples and Dharmaáäläs were
constructed and the Jaina pilgrims began to pour into these places. Thus while
the real birthplace was forgotten, other places came to be recognized as
such.
The present site, Kshatriyakuîâa,
near Lachaväda, can not be the birthplace of Lord Mahävīra because it formed
part of Aõga, and not of Videha. Modern K˙atriyakuîâa is situated on the
mountain while there are no references to mountains in connection with ancient
K˙atriyakuîâa of Kuîâapura in the Jaina scriptures. Near the present
K˙atriyakuîâa, no traces of such ancient places as Vaiáälī, Väîijyagräma,
Kolläga-Sanniveáa and Karmäragräma are found. The nullaha near it is not the
Gaîâaki river.
In the Mahävagga of the
Buddhists, it has been said that Buddha, while sojourning at Kotiggäma, was
visited by the courtezan Ambapäli and the Lichchhavis of the neighbouring
capital, Vaiáalī. From Kotiggäma, he went to where the Nätikas lived. There he
lodged in the Nätika Brick Hall. From there he went to Vaiáäli where he
converted the general-in-chief (of the Lichchhavis), a lay disciple of the
Nirgranthas. H. Jacobi
has identified Koûiggäma of the Buddhists with Kuîâagäma of the Jainas. Apart
from the similarity of the names, the reference to the Nätikas, apparently
identical with the Jņätrka K˙atriyas to whose clan Mahävīra belonged, and to
Sīha, the Jaina, points to the same direction. Kuîâagräma, therefore, was
probably one of the suburbs of Vaisälī, the capital of Videha. This conjecture
is borne out by the name Vesälie, i.e. Vaīsälika given to Mahävīra
in the Sütrakôitäõga. Vaiáälika apparently means a native of
Vaiáälī; and Mahävīra could rightly be called as such when Kuîâagrama was a
suburb of Vaiáälī. The
identification of Koûiggäma with Kuîâapura seems to be doubtful, and both seem
to be independent villages.
A.F.R. Hoernle19 has clearly shown that Vaiáälī is
the birthplace of Mahävīra. Väîiyagäma was another name of the well-known city
of Vaiáälī, the capital of the Lichchhavi country. This city, commonly called
Vaiáälī, occupied a very extended area, which included within its precinet,
besides Veáälī proper, several other places such as Väîiyagäma and Kuîâagäma.
They still exist as villages called Bäniyä and Basukuîâa.
The identification of Vaiáälī with
the group of remains associated with the village of Basäôh in Muzaffarpur
District, some forty km. to the north of Patna, is conclusively proved by the
survival of the ancient name with only slight modifications; by the geographical
bearings taken from Patna and other places; by the topographical details
compared with the description recorded by Yuan Chwang, the Chinese pilgrim in
the seventh century and by the finding on the spot of sealings of letters
inscribed with the name Vaiáälī.20
The identification of ancient
Vaiáälī and Kuîâagäma or Kuîâapura with Basäôh and Basukuîâa respectively has
been supported by several other scholars such as T. Bloch21, S. Stevenson22, N. L. Dey23 and B. C. Law24. Some of these scholars consider
Kuîâapura, Väõiyagäma, Kolläga Sanniveáa and Karmägagräma to be the suburbs of
Vaiáälī. This view does not seem to be correct. These were independent villages
which may be identified with the modern villages of Basukuîâa, Baniyä, Koluä and
Kümana Chaparägächī respectively. Brähmaîakuîâa and K˙atriyakuîâa were the two
wards of Kuîâapura, and between them was situated Bahuáäla Caitya. Vaiáälī and
Kuîâapura were situated on the eastern bank of the Gaîâakī river, while
Karmäragräma, Kolläga Sanniveáa,25 Vänijyagräma and Dvipaläáa
Caitya on the west.
Childhood
There are scriptural anecdotes, and
miracles connected with the childhood of Mahävīra. It is stated in them that his
birth was celebrated alike by gods and men, and it was received by his parents
with the loftiest expectations. On the day of his birth, the prisoners in
Kuîâapura were released. Festivals kept the whole town vibrant in mirth and joy
for ten days after which many offerings were made to the gods.26 His parents named him
Vardhamäna27 or the Prosperous one, because
with his birth, the wealth, fame and merit of the family
increased.
The two ascetics, Sanjaya and
Vijaya, harboured some doubts about
the nature of some object. As their misgiving immediately disappeared at the
sight of Tirthankara Mahävīra, they therefore gave him the name Sanmati
in devotion.28
The scriptures of both the
Ávetämbaras and the Digambaras relate the legends of Mahävīra's supreme valour
and how easily he excelled all his companions in strength and physical endurance
during boyhood. One day, playing with his friends in the garden of his father,
Mahävīra saw an elephant, mad with fury and secration flowing from his temples,
rushing towards him. His companions, all boys, shocked and frightened at the
sight of this imminent danger, deserted their comrade and ran away. Without
losing a moment, Mahävīra made up his mind to face the danger squarely, went
towards the elephant, caught hold of his trunk with strong hands and mounted his
back at once. Because of controlling & pacifying on amuck elephant, he was
called 'Atīvīra'.
Another legend tells how, when
Mahävīra was playing with the same children at Ämbali pipalī (a sort of
tick or tig) among the trees, a god disguised as a dreadful snake appeared
on a tree. All his companions were alarmed and fled away. Mahävīra, mustering
courage, remained calm. He caught hold of the snake and threw it away. The god
again decided to frighten the child by carrying him high up into the sky on his
shoulders. Mahävīra, however, was not in the least alarmed, and seizing this
opportunity of showing his superiority over the petty goods whacked from and
pulled his hair so hard that he was only too ready to bend down and get rid of
his obstreperous burden.29 As Vardhman stood fast in the midst
of dangers and fears, patiently enduring all hardships and calamities, adhering
to the chosen rules of penance, and as he was wise, indifferent to pleasure and
pain alike, rich in self-control and gifted with fortitude, the name
Mahävīra was given to him. As he was devoid of love and hate, he was
called Áramaîa.30
In person, Mahävīra seems to have
been handsome and impressive. He was possessed of a very keen
intellect.31 The Kalpa
Sütra32 mentions that from his very birth,
he possessed supreme, unlimited and unimpeded knowledge and intuition.
Life of a
Householder
On the question of Mahävīra's
marriage, there is a fundamental difference of detail between the Digambara and
the Ávetämbara accounts. The Digambara works33 deny the fact of Mahävīra's
marriage. On the other hand, in the Ávetämbara accounts,34 there is an allusion to his
marriage. In his youth, Mahävīra's was, however, given to contemplation and had
begun to entertain plans of renunciation. His parents tried to solve the problem
by marrying him off to a beautiful young woman, Yaáodä, a K˙atriya lady of
Kauîâinya Gotra, who soon presented him with a daughter named Aîojjä.
Aîojjä was married to Jamälī, a K˙atriya, who after becoming Mahävīra's follower
created a schism. Mahävīra's grand- daughter, who belonged to the Kauáika
Gotra, had two names : Seáhavatī and Yaáovatī.
Mahävīra's paternal uncle was
Supäráva. His elder brother was Nandivardhana and his elder sister Sudaráanä.
His parents died when he was thirty years old. Afterwards, his elder brother,
Nandīvardhana, succeeded his father. With the permission of his brother and
other authorities,35 he carried out his long cherished
resolve and became a monk with the usual rites. The Digambara works do not
mention the names of his elder brother and elder sister. According to them,
Mahävīra embarked upon his spiritual vocation during the lifetime of his
parents. At first his parents were opposed to the idea of their delicately
nurtured child undergoing all the hardships that fall to the lot of a houseless
mendicant, but at last they acquiesced.
His
Ascetic Life : His Twelve Years of Preparation
The Äcäräõga Sütra has
preserved a sort of religious ballad giving an account of the years during which
Mahävīra led a life of the hardest asceticism, thus preparing himself for the
attainment of the highest spiritual knowledge (Kevala Jņana). The account given
in the Kalpa Sütra substantially agrees with that of the Acäräõga
Sütra. Both the Äcäräõga and the Kalpa Sütra narrate the story
of his Sädhanä in such a manner as to suggest that he had to make
superhuman efforts before he could aspire to obtain the coveted position of a
Kevalin. It is remarkable that this account of Mahävīra Sädhanä
given in the Äcäräõga and the Kalpa Sütra does not bring in Goáäla
to form an episode. It is only from the Bhagavatī Sütra and the
Uväsagadasäo that we know that the Äjīvika Teacher Goáäla lived in the
company of Mahävīra for about six years during this ascetic period of Mahävīra's
life.
Mahävīra renounced the world at the age
of thirty. Digambaras believe that Mahävīra abandoned clothes at the time of his
initiation,whereas the Ávetämbaras hold that he abandoned them after thirteen
months. The Äcäräõga Sütra gives the following account of his ascetic
life.
For a year and a month since he
renounced the world Mahävīra did not discard his clothes. Thereafter, he gave up
his garments and became naked.36 Even when he used his robe, he used
it only in winter.37 For more than four months, many
living beings gathered on his body, crawled about it, and caused him
pain.38 Then he meditated, walking with his
eye fixed on a square space before him of the length of a man. Many people
assembled, shocked at the sight; they struck him and shouted. When asked, he
gave no answer; when saluted he gave no response. He was struck by sinful
people.39
For more than a couple of years, he
led a religious life; he lived in solitude, guarded his body, had intuition, and
was calm. He carefully avoided injuring the meanest form of life. He did not use
what was expressly prepared for him. He consumed clean food. He did not use
another's robe, nor did he eat out of another's vessel. Disregarding contempt,
he went with indifference to places where food was prepared. He was not desirous
of eating delicious food, nor had he any longing for it. He neither rubbed his
eyes nor scratched his body.40
Mahävīra sometimes lodged in
workshops, assembling places, shops; sometimes in factories or under a shed of
straw. He sometimes took shelter in travellers' halls, garden-houses or towns;
sometimes in a cemetery, in relinquished houses, or in the shade of a tree. At
these places, he spent thirteen long years meditating day and night, exerting
himself, strenuously. He did not seek sleep for the sake of pleasure; he would
keep awake and sleep only a little, free from cares and desires. Waking up
again, he would lie down exerting himself; going outside for once in a night, he
would walk about for an hour. In these resting places, he had to face manifold
calamities. Crawling or flying animals attacked him. Bad people, the guard of
the village, or lance-bearers assaulted him. Always a master of himself, he
endured these hardships as he wandered about, speaking but little. Ill treated
by the wanderers, he kept himself in meditation, free from
resentment.41 Always calm and cool-headed, he
patiently bore the pains caused by, cold, fire, flies and
gnats.42
Mahävīra travelled in the pathless
country of Rädha, in Vajrabhümi and Ávabhrabhümi, where he used most comfortless
beds and seats. The rude natives of the place attacked him and unleashed their
dogs to bite him, but he never kept them off. Being perfectly enlightened, he
endured the abusive language of the rustics. Sometimes when he did not reach the
village, the inhabitants met him on the outskirts and attacked him, saying Get
away from here. He was struck with a stick, fist, or lance; he was hit with a
fruit, a clod, and a potsherd. When once he sat without moving his body, they
cut his flesh, tore his hair or covered him with dust. They disturbed him in his
religious meditation. Abandoning the care of his body, he endured all pains free
from desire.43
Mahävīra abstained from the
indulgence of the flesh, and he was never attacked by any illness. Whether
wounded or not, he never had any desire for any medical treatment. Purgatives
and emetics, anointing of the body and bathing, shampooing and cleaning of the
teeth were abjured by him, after he learned that the body is something unclean.
In the cold season, he meditated in the shade, and in summer, he exposed himself
to the heat. He lived on coarse food : rice, pounded jujube, and beans. Using
these three kinds of food, he sustained himself for eight months. Sometimes he
ate only on the sixth day, or the eighth, the tenth and the twelfth. Sometimes
he ate stale food. He committed no sin himself, nor did he induce others to do
so, nor did he consent to the sins of others. He meditated persevering in some
posture, without any motion whatsoever; he meditated in mental concentration on
the things above, below, beside, free from desires. He meditated free from sin
and desire, not attached to sounds or colours; though still an erring mortal, he
never acted carelessly.44
Thus, like a hero at the head of a
battle, he bore all hardships, and, remaining undisturbed, proceeded on the road
to deliverance. Understanding what truth is and restraining his impulses for the
purification of his soul, he finally liberated himself.45
The account of Mahävīra's ascetic
life given in the Kalpa Sütra is as follows. When the moon was in
conjunction with the asterism Uttaraphälguni, he, after fasting for two
and a half days without drinking water, put on a divine robe, and, quite alone,
nobody else being present, palled out his hair and, abandoning his house,
entered the state of houselessness.46 For more than a year he wore
clothes. Afterwards, he walked about naked, and accepted the alms in the hollow
of his hand. Fore more than twelve years, he neglected his body and took no care
of it. With exemplary equanimity he bore, experienced and suffered all pleasant
or unpleasant occurrences arising from gods, men or animals.47
Henceforth, the ascetic Mahävīra
remained circumspect in speech, and movement. He guarded his thoughts, words,
acts, senses and chastity. He moved about without wrath, pride, deceit and
greed. He remained calm, tranquil, composed, liberated, free from temptations,
without egoism, and without possessions. In short, he had cut off all earthly
ties, and was not stained by any wordliness. As water does not adhere to a
copper vessel, so sins found no place in him. His course was unobstructed like
that of Life. Like the firmament, he needed no support, and like the wind he
knew no obstacles. His heart was pure like the water in autumn. He remained
unsoiled like a leaf of lotus. His senses were well protected like those of a
tortoise. He lived single and alone like the horn of a rhinoceros. He was free
like a bird. He was always waking like the fabulous bird, Bhäruîâa. He was
valorous like an elephant, strong like a bull, unassailable like a lion, steady
and firm like Mount Mandära, deep like an ocean, mild like the Moon, refulgent
like the Sun and pure like the excellent gold. Like the earth, he patiently bore
everything and like a well-kindled fire, he shone in his
splendour.48
Out of all the eight months of summer and
winter taken together, Mahävīra spent only a single night in villages and only
five nights in towns. He was indifferent alike to the smell of ordure and of
sandal, to straw and jewels, dirt and gold, and pleasure and pain. He was
attached neither to this world nor to the world beyond. He desired neither life
nor death. He arrived at the other shore of the Saãsära, and exerted
himself for the suppression of the defilement of Karma.49
With supreme knowledge, intuition,
conduct, valour, uprightness, mildness, dexterity, patience, freedom from
passions, control, contentment, and understanding, Mahävīra meditated on himself
for twelve years. He moved on the supreme path to final liberation which is the
fruit of veracity, control, penance and good conduct.50
The Kalpa Sütra gives a list
of forty-two rainy seasons spent by Mahävīra since he renounced the life of a
householder. He stayed the first rainy season in Asthikagräma, three rainy
seasons in Campä and Pô˙ûicampä, twelve in Vaiáälī and Väîijyagräma, fourteen in
Räjagôha and Nälandä, six in Mithilä, two in Bhadrikä, one in Älabhikä, one in
Panitabhümi, one in Árävastī and the last one in the town of Päpä in king
Hastipäla's office.51
B. C. Law52 thinks that the Kalpa Sütra
list of places is worded according to the idea of succession and chronology. The
idea of succession is suggested by two expressions : the first rainy season in
Asthikagräma and the last rainy season in Päpä or Pävä. Accordingly he
suggests the names of places where Mahävīra spent the twelve rainy seasons of
his ascetic life.53 He stayed the first rainy season in
Asthigräma, three rainy seasons in Campä and Pô˙ûicampä and eight in Vaiáälī and
Väîijyagräma. This view does not appear to be correct. Except the first and the
last, the other places have not been mentioned in chronological order but in
groups.
According to a commentary on the
Kalpa Sütra, Asthigräma was formerly called Vardhamäna. It would perhaps
be more correct to say that Asthigräma was the earlier name of Vardhamäna
(modern Burdwan). But none need be surprised if Asthigräma was the same place as
Hatthigäma (Hastigräma) which lay on the high road from Vaiáälī to Pävä
(probably modern Kasiä).54 Campä was the capital of Aõga which
was conquered in Mahävīra's time by Áreîika Bimbisära and permanently annexed to
Magadha. Its actual site is probably marked by two villages of Campänagara and
Campäpura near Bhagalpur. Pô˙ûicampa must have been a place near Campä. Vaiáälī
is identified with modern Basärah in Vaiáälī, a district of Bihar. It was the
chief seat of government of the Vôjji-Lichchavīs in Mahävīra's time. Väîiyagäma
is the same as modern Bania, a village near Basärah.55 Räjagôha (modern Räjgir) was the
capital of Magadha in Mahävīra's time. Nälandä is identified with modern
Bargaon, 10 km. to the north-west of Räjgīr in the district of Nälandä near
Bihar (Biharsharif).56 Mithilä was the capital of the
prosperous kingdom of Videha. It is identified with Janakpur, a small town
within the Nepal border, north of which the districts of Muzaffarpur and
Darbhanga meet.57 Badrikä, which is the same name as
the Päli Bhaddiya, was an important place in the kingdom of
Aõga.58 It was visited by Buddha and is
identified with modern Monghyr.59
Älabhikä, which is the same as the
Päli Älavi, is identified by A. Cunningham
and A. F. R. Hoernle
with Newal or Nawal in Unao
District in U.P., and by N. L. Dey with
Aviwa, 40 km. north-east of Eatwah.60 It lay between Sävatthi and
Räjagiha.61 Paîitabhümi, which is the same as
Paîiyabhümi, was a place in Vajrabhümi, a division of the pathless country of
Räâha.62 Árävastī was the flourishing
capital of the kingdom of Koáala in Mahävīra's time. It is identified with
Sahet-Mahet on the bank of the Räpti.63 Päpä, which is the same name as the
Päli Pävä, was one of the chief seats of government of the Mallas. It was in
Mahävīra's time one of the halting stations on the highway from Vaiáälī to
Kuáīnärä and Kapilavastu.64 A. Cunningham
took it for the modern village, Padaraona, 18 km. to the N. N. E. of
Kasiä.65 It is identified with a place
located at a distance of ten km. from Biharsharif in Patna
District.66
One important event of this period
of Mahävīra's life was his meeting with Goáäla Maõkhaliputta, the head of the
Äjīvika sect. From the account given in the Bhagavatī Sütra, it is known
that during the second year of his ascetic life, Mahävīra stayed at Nälandä
during the rainy season. At this time, Goáäla, who was then wandering about in
the country showing pictures to the people at large, happened to arrive and put
up there. Owing to Mahävīra's extraordinary self-restraint, his impressive
habits of meditation, his capacity to prophesy things correctly and to the fact
that a rich householder Vijaya, of Räjagôha had shown respect and hospitality to
him, Goáäla was attracted, and wanted to be his disciple, but Mahävīra turned
down his request. His prayer was not granted on two successive occasions even
though the Master was entreated by the rich householders, Änanda and
Sudaráana.
In the meantime, Mahävīra went to
the settlement of Kolläga, at some distance from Nälandä, where he was
hospitably greeted by the Brähmiî Bahula. (Kolläga is identified with the modern
village Kolhuä.) Goáäla proceeded towards Räjagôha and its suburbs to find out
Mahävīra but it vain. He came back to the weaver's shed of Nanda where he gave
away his clothes, vessels, shoes, and pictures to a Brähmiî of the place, shaved
off his hair and beared, and in despair departed in search of the Master. On his
way, he came across Kolläga where he saw people praising Bahula's liberality
towards Mahävīra.67
Goáäla continued his search of
Mahävīra and at last succeeded in finding him out at Paîiyabhümi. He again
requested him with greater earnestness to accept him as his disciple. This time
his request was granted, and both Mahävīra and his disciple Goáäla lived
together for six years in Paîiyabhümi, practising asceticism. Afterwards, they
started from Paîiyabhümi to Kürmagräma, and from Kürmagräma to Siddhärthagräma.
Siddhärthagräma is probably the same as Siddhärthagräma in the Bīrbhum
District.68 While at Kürmagräma, they met an
ascetic named Ve˙ayaîa who remained seated with upraised arms and upturned face
in the glare of the Sun, while his body was swarmed with lice. Goáäla enquired
whether he was a sage or a bed of lice. Vesayaîa became very angry and attempted
to strike Goáäla with his supernormal powers. Mahävīra explained to him the
severe ascetic discipline by which such powers could be
obtained.
While at Siddhärthagräma, Goáäla
uprooted sesame shrub and threw it away. Owing to a chance fall of rain, the
shrub came to life again. From this, he jumped to the conclusion that all plants
were capable of reanimation. He drew even further conclusion that not only
plants, but in fact all living beings were capable of reanimation. His theory of
reanimation and other doctrines did not find favour with Mahävīra who believed
in the freedom of the will. Henceforth Goáäla severed his connection with
Mahävīra and established a separate sect known as Äjīvika.69
The incidental enumeration of the
places visited by Mahävīra in the Bhagavatī Sütra during his ascetic life
does not tally with those given in the Kalpa Sütra. The Bhagwati
Sütra associates Nälandä, Räjagôiha, Paîiyabhümi, Siddhärthagräma and
Kürmagräma with his early wanderings. The Uväsagadasäo mentions
Väîijyagräma, Campä, Bäräîasī, Älabhi (Päli Alavi), Kampilyapura, Poläsapura,
Räjagôha, and Árävastī as the places that were visited by Mahävīra. Both the
Bhagavati Sütra and the Uväsaga-dasäo would have us believe that
he received extraordinary respect from certain rich householders even long
before his Jinahood. Bäräîasī is no other than modern Benaras. Kampillapura is
identified with Kampil in the Farrukabad District.70 Poläsapura has not been identified,
but at the time of Mahävīra, it was within the kingdom of king Jiyasattu, the
ruler of Koáala.
When Mahävīra was thirty years old,
he renounced the world with the permission of his elder brother, Nandivardhana,
and his relatives. With people pursuing him, he set out from Kuîâagräma on the
tenth day of the dark of Märgasir˙a in winter by simply putting on a
divine garment (Devadussa). He came to the garden of Näyasaîâavaîa
situated in the north-east direction on the outskirts of Kuîâaggäma. At this
place, the renunciation ceremony of Mahävīra was celebrated with great
rejoicings. He is said to have given the first half of his garment to a
Brähmaîa.
First
Year
In the evening of the same day,
Mahävīra left Näyasaîâa for Kumäragäma. There were two routes by which this
journey was performed, one by water and the other by land. Mahävīra preferred
the latter and reached Kumäragäma. Now this village is known by the name of
Kammana-Chhaparä.71 Here, Mahävīra stood in meditation
but was harassed by a cowherd who took him for a thief and wanted to hit him.
Next day, Mahävīra proceeded to Kollīäga Sannivesa where he broke his fast. From
there, he started for Moräga Sannivesa and reaching there, stayed in a
hermitage. Next day, he left Moräga Sannivesa but again came back to this place
after eight months. Then he proceeded to Atûhivagäma, where he put up in the
shirne of Áülapäîī. Here Áülapäîī Jakkha is said to have caused Mahävīra many
troubles but the latter bore them with his wonted equanimity and patience. Thus
Mahävīra spent his first rainy season at Aûûhiyagäma.
Second
Year
From Aûûhiyagäma, Mahävīra again
came to Moräga Sannivesa where lived an ascetic named Achchhandaka. Then he
started for Väcäla, which was divided into Uttaraväcäla and Dakkhinaväcäla, and
between them flowed the rivers Suvannakülä and Ruppakülä. When Mahävīra was
going from Dakkhiîaväcäla to Uttaraväcäla, the remaining half of his garment got
entangled in the thorns on the bank of Suvannakülä. From this time onwards,
Mahävīra became a naked monk. There were two routes to Uttaraväcäla, one through
the hermitage named Kanakakhala and another from outside it. Mahävīra chose the
former one which was more difficult. At Uttaraväcäla, he had to face a poisonous
snake named Âr˙ûivi˙a. From Kanakakhala, he travelled to Seyaviyä where he was
received by King Paesi. T. W. Rhys
Davids identifies this place with Satiabia and Vost
with Basedita, twenty-five km. from Sahet-Mahet and ten km. from
Balarampur.72 Mahävīra arrived at Surabhipura
from Seyaviyä after crossing the Ganges, and afterwards proceeded to Thüîäka
Sannivesa where he stood in meditation. The place was situated in the country of
Mallas to the north-west of Patna on the right bank of the
Gaîâakī.73 From here, Mahävīra proceeded to
Räyagiha and sojourned in a weaver's shed in Nälandä where he passed the second
rainy season. Here Goáäla met him and the two left for Kolläga
together.
Third
Year
From Kolläga, Mahävīra and Goáäla
came to Sunnakhälaya and then to Bambhaîagäma. This Bambhaîagäma lay in a route
from Räjagrha to Campä.74 From this place, they reached Campä
where Mahävīra spent the third rainy season.
Fourth
Year
From Campä, Mahävīra and Goáäla
arrived at Käläya Sannivesa and thence to Pattakälaya. At both these places,
Goáäla was insulted by people for his misbehaviour. Then, both came to Kumäräya
Sannivesa where Mahävīra practised meditation in the garden, Camparamaîijja.
Then they proceeded to Coräga Sannivesa where they were taken to be spies and
were taken prisoners. Coräga Sannivesa may be identified with Choreya in
Lohardugga District in Bengal.75 From this place, they travelled to
Piûûhicampä where Mahävīra passed the fourth rainy season.
Fifth
Year
From Piûûhicampä, Mahävīra and
Goáäla proceeded to Kayaõgalä, now identified with Kaņkajol in Santhal
Parganä in Bihar.76 At this place, some ascetics were
staying with their families. Goáäla is known to have misbehaved with them and
was therefore punished. Then both came to Sävatthi and, later, to Haledduga.
Here under a big turmeric tree Mahävīra stood in meditation. His feet are said
to have been burnt by fire. Meditation over, both proceeded to Naõgala where
Mahävīra stood in meditation again in the Väsudeva temple. Goáäla was punished
once again for his misdemeanour. Then, they arrived at Avattagäma where Mahävīra
spent his time in meditation in the Baladeva temple and Goáäla was taken to task
for his misbehaviour. Continuing their travels in this region, they reached
Coräya Sannivesa from where they journeyed to Kalambuka Sannivesa. Here both
were tied by Kälahasti and were beaten; later on, they were set at liberty by
Kälahasti's brother, Megha, who recognized Mahävīra. Then they journeyed to the
country of Läâha where Mahävīra had to endure various kinds of painful
sufferings. Läâha or Räâha comprise the modern districts of Hooghly, Howrah,
Bankura, Burdwan, and the eastern part of Midnapore.77 From this place, they moved on
towards Punnahalasa where some robbers made a dastardly attempt on Mahävīra's
life. Undaunted, they travelled to the city of Bhaddiya where Mahävīra passed
the fifth rainy season.
Sixth
Year
From Bhaddiya, both Mahävīra and
Goáäla travelled to Kayalisamägama, and then onward to Jambusaîâa and Tambäya
Sannivesa. Jambusaîâa was located between
Ambagäma and Bhoganagara on a route from Vaiáäli to Kuáīnärä.78 Then they arrived at Küiya
Sannivesa where, suspected of being spies, they were kept as prisoners, but were
later released at the intercession of two sisters, Vijayä and Pragalbhä. Küiya
or Küpiya is identified with a place located at a distance of ten km. from the
Khalīläbäda Mehadävala road in Khalīläbad Tehsil of Âhühabastī
District.79
Now Goáäla and Mahävīra parted with
each other. Mahävīra left for Vaiáälī where he stood in a blacksmith's shed. The
blacksmith, seeing Mahävīra naked, ran to hit him. Afterwards, Mahävīra
proceeded to Gämäya Sannivesa where he was honoured by Vibhelaka Jakkha. From
this place, he travelled to Sälisīsayagäma where the demoness Kaûapütanä caused
him much trouble. After six months, Goáäla again joined Mahävīra at this place.
Finally, Mahävīra visited Bhaddiya in order to spend the sixth rainy season
there.
Seventh
Year
Then Mahävīra and Goáäla travelled
together in the country of Magadha. In the course of the journey, Mahävīra
decided to spend the seventh rainy season at Älabhiyä.
Eighth
Year
From Älabhiya, Mahävīra and Goáäla
set out for Kuîâäga Sannivesa. At this place, Mahävīra stood in meditation in
the temple of Väsudeva. Goáäla was again beaten for his bad manners. Then they
visited Maddanagäma and stayed in the Baladeva temple. Afterwards they came to
Bahusälagagäma where Mahävīra was harassed by Sälejjä Väîamäntarī. From this
place, they proceeded to the
capital Lohaggalä where the royal servants suspected them to be spies and caught
them. Later on they were set free at the intercession of Uppala who is said to
have arrived there from Aûûhiyagäma. Lohaggalä may be identified with Lohardagä
situated in the region which forms the central and north-western portion of the
Chhota Nagpur Division.80 From Lohaggalä, they went to
Purimatäla where Mahävīra stood in meditation in the garden of Sagaâamuha.
Purimatäla may be identified with Purulia in Bihar.81 From there, they travelled to
Unîäga and on to Gobhümi. At last they reached Räyagiha in order to pass the
eighth rainy season.
Ninth
Year
From Räyagiha, Mahävīra and Goáäla
again set out for a Läâha country which is non-Aryan. In the course of this
journey, they passed through Vajjabhümi and Subbhabhümi, where Mahävīra had to
endure all sorts of tortures. Sometimes people surrounded him and set their dogs
upon him. Mahävīra got no shelter in this region. He passed the ninth rainy
season in this country.
Tenth
Year
Mahävīra and Goáäla then travelled
to Siddhatthapura and Kummagäma. Soon they returned to Siddhatthapura. It may be
the same as Siddhangräma in Birbhum District.82 Severing his relations with
Mahävīra again, Goáäla now went to Sävatthi while Mahävīra visited Vaiáälī where
the republican chief Saõkha saved him from the trouble caused by the local
children. From here, Mahävīra crossed the river Gaîâai by boat and reached
Vaîiyagäma. He then proceeded to Sävatthi where he passed the tenth rainy
season.
eleventh
Year
From Sävatthi, Mahävīra set out for
Sänulaûûhiyagäma, which may be identified with Dalabhum in Singhbhum District in
Bengal.83 He then went to Peâhälagäma and
stood in meditation in the garden of Peâhäla in the shrine of Poläsa. In this
region of the Mlechchhas, Mahävīra had to suffer much. He travelled later to
Väluyagäma, Subhoma, Suchchhettä, Malaya and finally on to the Hatthisīsa. At
all these places, apparently located in the north-west part of Orissa, Mahävīra
had to undergo extreme physical torture. Afterwards he reached Tosali where he
was suspected to be a robber and hit hard. The place is now identified with
Dhauli and some neighbouring places in Orissa. Then he travelled to Mosali where
he was caught under the suspicion of a dacoit and brought before the king, but
he was soon released. Mahävīra again returned to Tosali and found himself in
great troubles. He was actually to be hanged here but was luckily rescued by
Tosali Kshatriya. Then he arrived at Siddhatthapura from where he proceeded to
Vayaggäma. For a period of six months, he had to bear great hardship at all
these places. From Vayaggäma, he proceeded to Älabhiyä and then to Seyaviyä and
Sävatthi. At last, passing through Koáämbī, Vänärasi, Räyagiha and Mithilä he
spent the eleventh rainy season at Vaiáälī.
Twelfth
Year
From Vaiáälī, Mahävīra came to
Suãsgumärapura which is identified with a hilly place near Chunar in Mirzapur
District.84 He proceeded thence to Bhogapura,
which lay between Pävä and Vaiáälī,85 and to Nandiggäma, from where he
travelled to Meîâhiyagäma. Afterwards he proceeded to Koáämbi, where he received
his alms after a period of four months. From Koáämbi, he set out for
Sumangalgäma and then for Pälayagäma. Finally, he reached Campä for spending the
twelfth rainy season.
Thirteenth
Year
From Campä Mahävīra came to
Jambhiyagäma. Kalyana
Vijaya identifies it with Jambhigaon near the river Damodar
in the Hazaribagh District,86 but it must be located somewhere
near modern Päväpuri in Bihar.87 From this place, he reached
Meîâhiyagäma. Then he visited Chhamäîigäma where a cow-herd is said to have
thrust iron nails into his ears. In this condition, Mahävīra is said to have
reached Majjhima Pävä where the nails were removed from his
ears.
Mahävīra's
Penance in a Cemetery at Ujjain
According to the Ávetämbaras,
Mahävīra was born with three kinds of knowledge : Matijņäna, Árutajņäna
and Avadhijņäna. He also gained the fourth kind of knowledge,
Manaęparyäyajņäna, by which he knew the thoughts of all sentient beings
possessing the five senses, some time after his initiation to asceticism.
According to the Digambaras, Mahävīra got up for food after two days he went to
Kulapura where its ruler, Kulädhipa, held him in high esterm, washed his feet
with his own hands, and, having walked round him three times, offered him rice
and milk. There Mahävīra took his first meal Päraîä after fasting for two days.
He returned to the forest and wandered about in it performing twelve kinds of
penance. At last he visited Ujjayinī and did penance in a cemetery there when
Rudra and his wife tried in vain to interrupt him Mahavira Conquesed this
Pari˙uha (afflition).
Kevalajņäna
The period of twelve years spent in
penance and meditation was not fruitless, for in the thirteenth year, Mahävīra
at last attained supreme knowledge and final deliverance from the bonds of
pleasure and pain. This most important moment of the Tirthankara's life has been
described this :
During the thirteenth year, in the
second month of summer, in the fourth fortnight, the light (fortnight) of
Vaiáäkha, on its tenth day, called Suvrata, while the moon was in
conjunction with the asterism Uttara-Phalguni, when the shadow had turned
towards the east, and the first wake was over, outside of the town Jômbhikagräma
on the northern bank of the river Ôjupälikä, in the field of the householder
Sämäga, in a north-eastern direction from an old temple, not far from a
Säl tree, in a squatting position with joined heels exposing himself to
the heat of the Sun, with the knees high and the head low, in deep meditation,
in the midst of abstract meditation, he reached Nirväîa, the complete and
full, the unobstructed, unimpeded, infinite and supreme, best knowledge and
intuition, called Kevala.
When the venerable Mahävīra had
become an Arhat and a Jina, he was a Kevalin, omniscient and
comprehending all objects; he knew all the conditions of the world, of gods, men
and demons; whence they come, where they go, whether they are born as men or
animals, or become gods or hell-beings; their food, drink, doings, desires, open
and secret deeds, their conversation and gossip and the thoughts of their minds;
he saw and knew all the conditions in the whole world of all living
beings.89
At this time, Mahävīra was forty-two
years old; and from this age, he entered upon a new stage of life, that of a
religious teacher and the head of a sect called the Nirgranthas, free from
fetters. He went from place to place for the propagation of his doctrine, and
for making converts. His first declaration about himself aroused confidence
among his followers and he urged them to follow his example in their own life.
The Buddhist texts give us an idea of his first declaration which is as follows
:
I am all-knowing and all-seeing, and
possessed of an infinite knowledge. Whether I am walking or standing still,
whether I sleep or remain awake, the supreme knowledge and intuition are present
with me constantly and continuously. There are, O Nirgranthas, some sinful
acts you have done in the past, which you must now wear out by this acute form
of austerity. Now that here you will be living restrained in regard to your
acts, speech, and thought, it will work as the non-doing of Karma for
future. Thus, by the exhaustion of the force of past deeds through penance and
the non-accumulation of new acts, (you are assured) of the stoppage of the
future course, of rebirth from such stoppage, of the destruction of the effect
of Karma, from that, of the destruction of pain, from that, of the
destruction of mental feelings, and from that, of the complete wearing out of
all kinds of pain.90
First
Sermon
When Mahävīra attained kevalahood, a
Samavaáaraîa (religious conference) was held on the bank of the river
Ujjuväliyä, but it is said that the first discourse of Mahävīra remained
unsuccessful. Then after traversing twelve yojanas, he is said to have
returned to Majjhima Pävä where the second Samavaáaraîa was convened in
the garden of Mahäsena. Here after a long discussion on various religious and
philosophic points, Mahävīra converted to Jainism the eleven learned Brähmaîas
who had gone there to attend the great sacrifice being performed by a rich
Brähmaîa named Somila.
According to the Digambara
scriptures, even after obtaining Kevalajņäna (Enlightenment) at
Jômbhikagräma, Mahävīra did not break his vow of silence taken from the time of
Pravrajyä, and wandering continuously for sixtysix days in silence,
reached Räjagôha, the capital of Magadha. Outside the city of Räjagôha, at
Vipuläcala where he settled, a Samavaáaraîa was held for his first
sermon. First of all he converted eleven learned Brähmaîas, including Indrabhüti
Gautama, who were known as his disciples (Gaîadharas). King Áreîika with
the members of the royal family, including his queen Cetanä, and the whole army
came to the Samavaáaraîa to pay homage to Mahävīra as well as to listen
to his first sermon. It is said that the king asked him several questions
concerning the faith and all of them were satisfactorily answered. In view of
the all embracing chapter of
Mahävīraá principles the gain Äcarya Samanta bhadra (2nd cent. A.D.) called the
religion of Mahävīra a 'Sarvadaya' Tirtha, which terms is now-a-days used after
Gandhiji.
Eleven
Disciples (Gaîadharas)
First of all, Mahävīra by his
preaching converted to Jainism the eleven learned Brähmaîas who became his
disciples, his eleven Gaîadharas. They listened to Mahävīra's discourses
and heard the gentle, thoughtful answers he gave to all questions. Finally,
being convinced of the truth of his views, they became his disciples or
Gaîdharas. The eldest was Indrabhüti, then followed Agnibhüti, Väyubhüti,
Vyakta, Sudharmä, Maîâikata, Mauryaputra, Akampita, Acalabhrätä, Metärya and
Prabhäsa. The first three Gaîadharas were brothers and belonged to the Gautama
Gotra, and were residents of Gobbaragäma. The fourth belonged to the
Bhäradväja Gotra and was the resident of Kolläga Sannivesa; the fifth
belonged to the Agni Veáyäyana Gotra and was the resident of Kolläga
Sannivesa; the sixth belonged to the Vasisûha Gotra and was the resident
of Moriya Sannivesa; the seventh belonged to the Käáyapa Gotra and was
the resident of Moriya Sannivesa; the eighth belonged to the Gautama
Gotra and was the resident of Mithilä; the ninth belonged to the Härīta
Gotra and was resident of Koáala; the tenth belonged to the Kauâinya
Gotra and was the resident of Tuõgika Sannivesa; and the eleventh
belonged to the same Gotra and was the resident of Räjagôha. These Gaîadharas
were all Brähmaîa teachers, and all except Indrabhütri and Sudharmä, died during
the life-time of Mahävīra. They are said to have been versed in the twelve
Aõgas, the fourteen Pürvas and the whole Gaîipiâaga (the
basket of the Gaîis).91
The Digambaras have some different
names for these Gaîadharas and give a different account of Gautama's
conversion. According to Guîabhadra92 the eleven names are as
follows : Indrabhüti, Väyubhüti, Agnibhüti, Sudharmä, Maurya, Maundra,
Putra, Maitreya, Akampana, Andhavela or Anvacela and Prabhäsa. Indrabhüti became
a very learned Pandita and grew extremely vain of his learning. One day,
however, an old man appeared and asked him to explain a certain verse to him,
but had immediately afterwards become so lost in meditation that he could get no
explanation of it from the saint, and yet he felt that he could not live unless
he knew the meaning. The verse contained references to Käla and
Dravya, Paņca Astikäya, Tattva and Leáyä, not one of which
could Gautama understand, but being too true a scholar to pretend to a knowledge
which he did not possess, he sought out Mahävīra to ask for an explanation. The
moment he was in the presence of the great ascetic, all his pride in his fancied
learning disapproved and he besought Mahävīra to teach him. He not only became a
convert himself, but took over with him his five hundred pupils and his three
brothers.93 In the Digambara Jain
Paûûävalīs, Sudharmä comes after Indrabhüti, and Sudharmä was also known
by the name of Lohärya.
One significant fact about these
Gaîadharas is that all of them were Brahmins, which proves that among the
Brahmins also an ideological revolution was taking place and compelling them to
give up their traditional grooves of thoughts advocating ritualism. Further, it
was this intelligentsia that predominantly included the Brahamins who helped him
spread his faith.
Four
Orders of the Jaina Community (Saãgha)
Mahävīra possessed a unique power of
organization. By his wonderful personality and organizational skill, he
attracted a large number of people, both men and women, to be his disciples.
From them therefore grew the four orders of his community : monks, nuns, laymen,
and laywomen.
The chief among his followers were
the fourteen thousand monks placed under the charge of Indrabhüti Gautama.
Mahävīra resolved to combat by regulations and organization those special
temptations and dangers which beset ascetics in their wandering life. For this
purpose, he divided fourteen thousand monks into nine regular schools called
Gaîas, placing each school under the headship of one of his chief
disciples or Gaîadharas. The leading Gaîadhara had five hundred
monks under him, but some of the others had only three hundred or two hundred
and fifty. These Gaîadharas were to guide and instruct separate groups of
Nirgranthas.
Besides the fourteen thousand monks,
a great multitude of women followed Mahävīra, and of these some thirtysix
thousand actually renounced the world and became nuns. At their head was
Chandanä, a first cousin of Mahävīra's, or, as other accounts have it, his
aunt.
Mahävīra's third Order consisted of
laymen numbering about one hundred and fiftynine thousand with Áaõkha Áataka at
their head. These laymen were householders who could not actually renounce the
world but they at least could observe the five small vows called
aîuvrata. The similarity of their religious duties, differing not in kind
but in degree, brought about the close union of laymen and monks. Most of these
regulations meant to govern the conduct of laymen were intended apparently to
make them participate, in a measure and for some time, in the merits and
benefits of monastic life without obliging them to renounce the world
altogether. The genius for organization which Mahävīra possessed as S. Stevenson
rightly observes, is shown in nothing more clearly than in the formation of
this and the order of laymen. These two organizations gave the Jaina a root in
India that the Buddhists never obtained, and that root firmly planted amongst
the laity enabled Jainism as we have seen, to withstand the storm that drove
Buddhism out of India.94
Their fourth and last Order
consisted of devout laywomen or Árävikäs numbering about three hundred
and fiftyeight thousand with Sulasä and Revatī as their heads. Their household
duties prevented their becoming nuns but still they served the ascetics in many
ways. Thus Mahävīra converted a large number of people to
Jainism.
The Digambaras believe that Mahävīra
did not travel alone but that wherever he went he was accompanied by all monks
and nuns who had entered his Order. He preached in a language which they call
An-aksharī, which was intelligible to all.
Places of
Rainy Seasons (CaturmÄsa)
The Jaina Kalpasütra gives
the names of the places where Mahävīra spent one or more rainy seasons since he
became an ascetic after renouncing the world. He stayed the first rainy season
in A˙ûhikagräma, three rainy seasons in Campä and Pô˙ûichampä, twelve in Vaiáäli
and Vaîijagräma, fourteen in Räjagôha and Nälandä, six in Mithilä, two in
Bhadrikä, one in Älabhikä, one in Paîitabhümi, one in Árävastī and the last one
in the town of Päpä in king Hästipäla's office.96 This list is neither exhaustive nor
chronological though it covers broadly the fortytwo years of his itinerary. It
is rather difficult to distinguish the places he visited during and after the
period of his ascetic life merely on the basis of the list supplied by the
Kalpa Sütra. There is no doubt that the Kalpa Sütra's authority on
the itinerary of Mahävīra is ancient and fairly reliable. It gives us a fair
idea of the area over which he wandered propagating his faith. When the places
are correctly identified, we come to know that this area roughly covered the
modern state of Bihar and some parts of Bengal and U.P.
The late Jaina works describe
Mahävīra's itinerary exhaustively and chronologically. After attaining
Kevalajņäna, Mahävīra spent no less than thirty rainy seasons at the
following places yearwise (1) Räjagôha, (2) Vaiáäli, (3) Väîijyagräma,
(4) Räjagôha, (5) Väîijyagräma, (6) Räjagôha, (7) Räjagôha, (8) Vaiáäli,
(9) Vaiáäli, (10) Räjagôha, (11) Väîijyagräma, (12) Räjagôiha,
(13) Räjagôiha, (14) Champä, (15) Mithilä, (16) Vänijyagräma,
(17) Räjagôha, (18) Väîijyagräma, (19) Vaiáälī, (20) Vaiáälī,
(21) Räjagôha, (22) Nälandä, (23) Vaiáälī, (24) Vaiáälī,
(25) Räjagôha, (26) Nälandä, (27) Mithilä, (28) Mithilä,
(29) Räjagôha, and (30) Äpäpäpurī.97
It may be note here that the
Digambaras do not subswill to the view of Caturmësa in rainy seasons in respect
of the Tīrthaõkara at differents places for the propagation of religion and
upliftment of the masses. Hence Mahavira made Vihära at different places! But
access, to svetambaras Mahavira followed the rule of staying at one place in
rainy seasons. Hence the above are the places where Mahavira spent one or more
rainy seasons !
Influence
on lay followers (Árävakas)
First of all, Mahävīra seems to have
tried to attract those householders who formed a large body of lay disciples by
laying down certain rules of conduct. Gautama Indrabhüti was taken to task by
the Master when he sought to claim a difference in degree in this respect
between a recluse and a lay disciple.98 The gift of supernormal vision was
no monopoly of any Order or caste or sex. In this matter, Mahävīra made no
distinction between men and men, or between men and women. He did not enjoin one
set of rules for male recluses and another for those of the fair sex, one set of
rules for male lay disciples and another for female lay disciples. When he
wandered about in the country, he was accompanied by male as well as female
recluses.
Mahävīra not only taught his
followers to undergo penances and live a life of restraint in all possible ways
but also watched how they had been progressing. He also encouraged them in the
study of the Pürvas and in developing their power of reasoning and arguing. The
Buddhist records themselves attest that there were some able and powerful
disputants among the Nirgrantha recluses and disciples.99
The lay disciples of Mahävīra and
the lay supporters of his Order, both male and female, are all mentioned as
persons of opulence and influence. At the same time, they were noted for their
piety and devotion. Their contemporaries, including kings and princes, consulted
them on many affairs and matters. Among them, Änanda and his wife Áivanandä from
Vänijagräma, Kämadeva and his wife Bhadrä from Campä, Cülanipriya and his wife
Áyäma, Süradeva and his wife Dhanyä from Bäräîasī, Cullasataka and his wife
Pu˙yä from Kampilyapura, Kundakolita and his wife from Kampilyapura,
Sardalaputra and his wife Agnimiträ from Poläsapura and Mahasataka from Räjagôha
and Nandinīpriya and his wife Aávinī, and Salatipriya and his wife Phälguni were
the most well-known lay disciples of Mahävīra.
The Päli Upäli
Sütra100 introudces us to the rich
householder Upäli of Balakagräma, near Nälandä, who was a lay disciple of
Mahävīra and a liberal supporter of the recluses of his Order, both male and
female. We are indeed told that a very large number of the inhabitants of
Balakagräma, headed by Upäli, became lay disciples of Mahävīra. The banker
Môgära or Môgadhara of Árävastī, father-in-law of the Buddhist lady Visäkhä, is
mentioned as a lay disciple of Mahävīra and a lay supporter of the Nirgrantha
recluses.