Chapter
iv
Teachings
of Mah�v�Ra
M�h�v�ra was not the founder but the
24th Tirthankara of the existing faith
of Jainism. His teachings are partly based on the religion of his predecessors
and partly independent. He was responsible for the codification of unystematic
mass of beliefs inhering the earlier religion of his predecessor into a set of
rules of conduct for monks and laymen. Besides, he had to introduce changes in
the existing religion in order to meet the needs of the time. There were several
orthodox and heretical sects with their well-known teachers going strong during
his time. He understood and mastered the doctrines of the current philosophical
systems such as the Kriy�v�dins, the Akriy�v�dins, the Vinayav�dins and the
Aj��nav�dins. He also formulated his own doctrines and solved the controversies
endlessly going on with his religious contemporaries. Some of his teachings also
arose in order to remove corrupt practices current in the society of this
period.
The teachings of Mah�v�ra are
supposed to have been embodied in the twelve A�gas. These original texts are,
however according to the Digambaras lost except some portion of the P�rvas
forming part of the twelfth Anga (D���iv�da) under the name of �a�kha�d�gama and
Kas�yap�hu�a. According to the Svet�mbaras only the Twelfth A�ga known as
D���iv�da has been completely lost and for the rest of the eleven A�gas an
attempt was made for their compilitation at the council of Patliputra after a
famine of twelve years duration in about the 3rd century B.C. This tipe of �gama
literature grew up by stages during the ten centuries following the Nirv��a of
Mah�v�ra. The final redaction of this �gamika literature with several
alterations took place at the council of Valabhi under the presidency of �rya
Devarddhi in 454 (or 467 A.D.)
It seems that the text of teachings
of Jainism underwent some changes in the interval between the time of Mah�v�ra
and the final composition of the Jaina canon. Older parts of the Ac�r��ga and
the Sutrak�t��ga may well claim to preserve much original matter, and the same
may be true to some extent of some portion of the Bhagavat� S�tra and the
Uttar�dhyayana S�tra. The �a�kha���gama and Kas�yap�hu�a also claim to preserve
much original matter. The earliest Buddhist texts, known as the Pal� Nik�yas,
also refer to the beliefs and teachings of Mah�v�ra. Though we cannot expect
them to give a fair and honest exposition of the tenets of their opponents, they
somehow corroborate the evidence of the Jaina texts. In the light of both these
evidences, an estimate of the teachings of Mahavira should be
made.
The teachings of Mah�v�ra were
simple, practical ethical and spiritual but gradually they developed into a
complicated system with considerable emphasis on details. Mah�v�ra and his
disciples propounded not only the doctrinal side of Jainism relating to the
nature of the truth and the ideal but also mapped out the practical and
disciplinary path leading to the realization of truth. It was chiefly in and
through the life of monks or mendicants that the ideal of conduct was sought to
be fulfilled.
NIRV��A
The ultimate object of Jainism as
taught by Mah�v�ra is Nirv��a which consists in the attainment of peace
and infinite bliss.1 Nirv��a is just another name
for Mok�a or liberation, Mukti or deliverance, salvation or
beatitude. Gautama, a disciple of Mah�v�ra, explained Nirv��a to Ke��, a
disciple of P�r�va : "It is a safe, happy, quiet and eternal place in view of
all but difficult of approach where there is no old age, nor death, nor sorrow,
nor pain, nor disease, It is a state of perfection which is obtained by putting
an end to the stream of existence."1 It is liberation from a state of
bondage brought on by karma. It is deliverance from old age, disease,
death, and all that constitutes sufferings.
This highest goal is to be attained
through annihilating the old karmas (Nirjar�) lying heavy on the soul by
the practice of austerities (Tapas), and to stop the influx
(��rava) of new Karmas by the practice of self-restraint, called
Sa�vara, with regard to the body, speech and mind.
Even in a P�li
Sutta,2 the main aim of Mah�v�ra's teaching
has been mentioned as Sukha or infinite bliss which is not attainable
through the finite happiness of even so fortunate among men as the reigning
monarchs; it is attainable only by forsaking all finite happiness. Had it been
possible to attain beatitude through mundane happiness, king �re�ika Bimbis�ra
of Magadha could certainly have attained it. It was to be achieved by means of
wearing out and ultimately destroying the effects of sinful deeds
(P�bakamma) committed in this and a former existence. The paractice of
the threefold self-restraint was to be taken recourse to by the aspirant as a
means of not giving effect to a new karma.
Right
Faith Samyagdarsana Right Knowledge (Samyagjnane And Right conduct
Samyakcaritra
Right Faith, Right Knowledge, and
Right Conduct are the three essential points in Mah�v�ra's teachings which lead
to perfection by the destruction of Karmas. Without Right Faith, there is
no Right Knowledge; without Right Knowledge there is no Virtuous Conduct;
without virtues, there is no deliverance and without deliverance (Moksa)
there is no perfection.3
Belief in the nine Padarthas after
comprehending them properly is Samyagdarsana4 (right belief). Because of self as
the basic principle in nine Padarthas, faith in the pure self constitutes what
is called Samyagdarsana (right belief)5. Right belief gives rise to right
knowledge (Samyagjnana) by virtue of which right path is comprehended and
consequently right conduct (Samyakcaritra) is pursued. This in turn results in
emancipation6. If the person is devoid of the
Jewel of right belief comprehends the scriptures, even then he remains in the
worldly process7.
The excellence of ones right-faith
depends on the following conduct: (1) Nihsankita : The right believer had no
doubts in the tenets of the Tirthankara (2) Nihkankaita: He has not
preference for the tenets of others or he does not hanker after the worldly
pleasures. (3) Nirvicikitsa: He does not doubt the efficacy of austerities
and self-control or he has no feeling of disgust at the various bodily
conditions caused by disease, hunger, thirst etc. (4) Amudhadrsti: he is
not shaken in the adopted right faith or he dissociates himself from the person
pursuing wrong path. (5) Upabrmha: he enhances his own faith by admiring
the right believers, (6) Sthitikarana: he re-establishes those who have
deviated from the path of rightousness (Dharma) (7) Vatsalya : he has deep
affection for those who are spiritual brethern and
(8) Prabh�van�:
He endeavours to exalt the religion
of the Tirthankaras.
The right faith is of ten kinds. (1)
Nisarga : (self-occasioned right faith), (2) Upadesa: (right faith through the
instructions of Guru etc., (3) �j�� : (right faith in the truthfulness of Jivas,
Ajivas etc. through the omniscient), (4) S�tra : (right faith through the study
of �gamas), B�ja: (right faith through knowing any one of the Pad�rthas),
(6) Abhigama : (right faith through the attainment of knowledge of �gamas),
(7) Vist�ra : (right faith through the detailed knowledge of Dravyas), (8)
Kriya: (right faith through religious exercise), (9) Sa�k�epa: (right faith
through the brief knowledge of Jiva etc.), (10) Dharma: (right faith in the
�gamas and conduct.
The Uttar�dhyayana S�tra speaks of
five kinds of knowledge: (1) �ruta or knowledge derived from the study of
sacred books, (2) Abinibodhika or Matijnana: knowledge derived through mind
and senses (3) Avadhi: Knowledge of the material object through self without
mind and senses, (4) Manahparyaya: knowledge of the thoughts of people through
self without mind and the senses, and (5) Kelvalaj��na: knowledge of the
all the substances and their infinite modification through
self.
The Avadhi-J��na is also
employed in the sense of knowledge co-extensive with the object. The Kalpa
S�tra,3 for instance, says: "He viewed the
whole Jambudv�pa with his knowledge called Avadhi". Here Avadhi
means that which is limited by the object, that which is just sufficient to
survey the field of observation.
The Mana�pary�ya-j��na is
defined in the �c�r��ga S�tra as a knowledge of the thoughts of all
sentient beings.4 The Kevala-j��na according
to the same text, is omniscience enabling a person to comprehend all objects, to
know all conditions of the world of gods, men and demons: whence they come,
where they go, where they are born, etc.5
Six kinds of substances have been
recognised namely J�va (soul), Pudgala (Matter), Dharma (Principle of motion)
Adharma (Principle of rest), �k��a (space) and K�la (Time). All the substances
except Pudgala are regarded as bereft of material qualities of touch taste smell
and colour and only Jiva is said to possess consciousness. �k��a provides
accommodation to J�vas, Pudgala etc. Dharma and Adharma are the indifferent
condition of movement and rest respectively.
Substance is the substratum of
qualities and modifications. It is characterised by simultaneous origination
(Utp�da), destruction (Vyaya) and persistence (Dhrauvya). Origination and
destruction are applicable to modifications and persistence to qualities along
with substance.
Virtue consists in right conduct.
But there is no right conduct without right belief, and no right belief without
the right perception of truth.3 Right conduct is achieved by
threefold restraint, the restraint of the body, the restraint of speech and the
restraint of mind.4 The first step towards virtue lies
in the avoidance of sins. There are various ways of committing sins, directly
and indirectly, through physical acts or through spoken words or even
through thoughts.5 Thus to avoid sins one must guard
oneself by the samitis and Guptis.
Not to kill any being, to live
according to the rules of cunduct and without greed, to take care of the highest
good to control oneself always while walking, sitting and lying down, and in the
matter of food and drink, to shake off pride wrath, deceit and greed, to possess
the Samitis, these in short, are the cardinal principles of
C�ritra as taught by Mah�v�ra.6
Austerities (Tapas)
The roal to final deliverance
depends on the performance of austerities which destroy the Karmas. Tapa implies
the extirpation of desire. Austerities are of two kinds external and internal.
The external austerities are of six kinds. (1) Anasana: It implies fasting
either for a limited period of time or till the separation of the soul from the
body. (2) Avamaudarya or Unodari: It means not to take full meals. (3)
Bhiksacari or Vrttiparisamkhyana: It consists of imposing certain restrictions
upon one-self regarding the mode of begging or the nature of the domor, or the
quantity of food or the way in which food is offered. (4) Rasaparityaga: It
means abstinence from dainty food. (5) Kayaklesa: It means the mortification of
the flesh. (6) Samlinata or Viviktasayyasana: It implies the choice of lonely
place of stay devoid of women, eunuchs and animals. This is to be remembered
that the external austerties should not engender mental disquietude and avate
the zeal for the performance and disciplinary practices.
Internal austerities are also of six
types: (1) Prayascitta: It means repentance for seeking freedom from the sins.
(2) Vinaya: It is humbleness towards the pious personalities. (3) Vaiyavrttya:
It means the rendering of service to saints in various ways. (4) Svadhyaya: It
means ethico-spiritual study which includes (i) learning (ii) questioning
(iii) pondering (iv) repetion and (v) religious discourse or preaching. (5)
Vyutsarga: implies bodily detachment. (6) Dhyana: It means the concentration of
mind on a particular object. It is directly related to the actualisation of
infinite knowledge and bliss.
Five vows (Vratas) for the
ascetics
Mahavira has prescribed five vows in
all. These five vows are: (1) Ahimsa (not to killed), (2) Satya (not to
lie), (3) Asteya (not to steal), (4) Brahmacarya (celibacy) and (5) Aparigraha
(to renounce the possession of worldly things along with
passions).
(1) The first great vow is
Ahimsa (abstinence of killing living beings). It is the vow of non-injury to all
living beings, mobile and immobile, gross and subtle in thought word and deed.
The observer of this vow should neither deprive any living being of life, nor
rule over him, nor torment him nor excite him. This vow of Ahimsa is the
central doctrine of Jainism taught by Mahavira.
The visible effect of Ahi�s�
was sought to be proved by a
practical demonstration. Already in Mah�v�r�'s time, the righteous kings of
India made it a point of duty to vouchsafe lawful protection to all forms of
life within the sacred precincts of a religious establishment2. This principle of causing no harm
to any being had a salutary effect on man's habitual diet. Those who came under
the influence of Mah�v�ra's personality and teaching gave up the eating of meat
and fish for good, and adhered to a strictly vegetarian
diet.
(2) The second great vow of Satya
means the avoidance of falsehood. For the observance of this vow, the false and
oppressing words likely to be uttered under the constraint of attachment,
aversion jest, fear, anger and
greed should be renounced. (3) The third great vow of Asteya means the
avoidance of theft. It consists in renouncing the possession of all things lying
either in a village or in a town or in a wood without their being offered. The
observer of this vow seeks the permission for certain necessary things from the
possessor. (4) The fourth great vow speaks of the avoidance of the
following: Bodily make-up, sense indulgence, taking of excessive food,
passionate thinking about a woman, reviving the past sexual enjoyments planning
for future sexual enjoyment etc.
(5) The fifth great vow is
freedom from possessions. If a living being with his ears open hears agreeable
or disagreeable sounds, he should not be attached to them. If he with his eyes
sees agreeable or disagreeable forms, he should not be attached to them. If he
with his nose smells agreeable or disagreeable smells, he should not be attached
to them. If he with his tongue tastes areeable or disagreeable things, he should
not be attached to them.1
The explanation offered by the
Svetambara Jaina texts in support of the addition of the vow of celibacy is as
follows. The Uttar�dhyayana2 says that "the first saints were
simple but slow of understanding, the last saints prevaricating and slow of
understanding, those between the two, simple and wise: hence there are two forms
of the Law. The first could but with difficulty understand the precepts of the
Law, and the last could only with difficulty observe them, but those between
them easily understood and observed them."
It is however wrong to suppose that
P�r�va did not advocate celibacy. What he did was that in the vow of
Aparigraha (non-possession) he included the vow of celibacy. This
indirect implication of non-possession could easily be understood by the
followers of P�r�va who were 'simple and wise'. Mah�v�ra's disciples, on the
other hand, being prevaricating and slow of understanding could only with
difficulty observe 'the vow of non-possession'. He had therefore to add the
fifth vow of abstinence from all sexual acts in clear
terms.
On this H. Jacobi remarks, "As the vow of chastity is
not explicitly mentioned among P�r�va's four vows, but was understood to be
implicitly enjoined by them (i.e, P�r�va's followers), it follows that only such
men as were of an upright disposition and quick understanding would not go
astray by observing the four vows literally, i.e., by not abstaining from sexual
intercourse, as it was not expressly, forbidden. The argumentation in the text
presupposes a decasy of morals of the monastic order to have occurred between
P�r�va and Mah�v�ra, and this is possible only on the assumption of a sufficient
interval of time having elapsed between the last two Tirtha�karas. And this
perfectly agrees with the common tradition that Mah�v�ra came 250 years after
P�r�va."1
It is on the basis of the number of
vows observed that the sect of P�r�va was known as
C�tury�ma2 and that of Mah�v�ra as
Pa�chay�ma. These vows were strictly observed by monks who took them on
entering the order. In their case, the vows were called the five great vows
(Mah�v�rata). Lay people, however, observed these vows as far as their worldly
situation permitted. The five vows of the lay people were, of course,
A�uvrata or small vows.
A correct representation of the
'fourfold self-restraint', even in the sense of which the followers of P�r�va
understood it, is not wanting in Buddhist literature. Just then a separate vow
of chastity was added to the 'fourfold self-restraint' to complete the list of
five great vows (Pa�camah�vratas) promulgated by Mah�v�ra. These have
been enumerated as abstinence from the idea of killing, the idea of theft, the
idea of unchastity, the idea of lying, and some such tapogu�a or virtue
of an ascetic3. It is interesting indeed to note
that even some of the Jaina phrases have been reproduced in the Buddhist
text.
Doctrine
of the nine categories or truths (nava tattva)
Mah�v�ra formulated his theory of
the nine categories as well as his theory of Karma. His doctrine of the
nine categories was meant to explain how the bondage of the soul arises by way
of karmic effects upon it and how the defects are got rid off and the
liberation of the soul is obtained. The categories are as follows: (1) Jiva
(soul), (2) Ajiva (non-soul) (3) Bandha (bondage of karma), (4) Punya
(merit), (5) Papa (demerit), (6) Asrava (influx) of karma)
(7) Samvara (the prevention of influx of karma), (8) Nirjara (partial
annihilation of karma) and (9) Moksa (total ainnihilation of karma). He who
verily believes in the fundamental categories possesses right
belief.
The first pair of terms, Jiva, and
Ajiva, comprehends the world of existence as known and experienced. The Jiva
sighnifies all that has life while Ajiva indicates those that are without life.
The world of life is represented by six classes of living beings, six classes of
beings are: Earth-bodied, water-bodied, fire-bodied, air-bodied and
vegetable-bodied one-sensed jivas along with two sensed to five sensed jivas.
Living things are either subtle or gross, and living beings are either those
still belonging to Samsara or those whose souls are perfected. Through the
gradation of living beings, one can trace the evolution of the senses. The
lowest form of being is provided with only one sense, the sense of
touch.
It is only in relation to the six
classes of beings that the process of Karma sets in and the nature of
man's conduct is determined. "Know and understand," taught Mahavira, "that they
all desire happiness; by hurting these beings, men do harm to their own souls,
and will again and again he born as one of them.
The category of Jiva and Ajiva helps
us in knowing the world of life and non-life. The third term or category is
Bandha or bondage of the soul which is due to passions. Bandha is the subjection
of the soul to the laws of the birth and death, of youth and age, of pleasure
and pain, and other vicissitudes of life brought about by the effect of
Karma.
The soul, represents the principle
of knowledge, the characteristic of which is consciousness. Buddhaghosha in his
commentary on the Brahmajala sutta, Digha Nikaya 1,2,381, mentions the Niganthas
as holding the opinion that the soul has no colour, and it continues to exist
after death and is free from ailments. This description is consonant with the
opinions of the Jainas about the nature of the soul.
The categories of Merit (Punya) and
Demerit (Papa) comprehend all acts or deeds, pious and sinful, which keep the
soul bound to the circle of the births and deaths.
Asrava is responsible for the
attraction of Karmic particles towards the soul because of the operations of
mind, body and speech. And Samvara is the principle of self-control by which the
influx of Karmas is checked or stopped. The category of Samvara
comprehends the whole sphere of right conduct.
Nirjara or Karmakshaya consists in
the wearing out of the accumulated effects of Karma on the soul by the
practice of austerities, and Moksha, which logically follows from Nirjara,
signifies the final deliverance of the soul from the bondage of
Karma.
Theory of
Karma
Mahavira's great message to mankind
is that on the destruction of karma, all future happiness depends. Mahavira does
not mean by Karma 'work or deed'. It is an aggregate of material, fine
particles which are inperceptible and which enter into the soul and produce
changes in it. Through the actions of mind, body and speech Karmic matter
gets into the soul and is tied to it through Kasayas (passions) namely
anger, pride, deceit and greed. This theory of Karma represents the most
ancient and original feature of Jaina thought. According to H. Jacobi, "This
Karma, theory, if not in all details, certainly in the main outlines, is
acknowledged in the oldest parts of the canon". It has been dealt in great
detail in the Satkhandajama. Some of the passages concerning the theory
of Karma found the old texts of Jainism are as
follows:
"The painful condition of the self
is brought about by one's own action, it is not brought about by any other cause
(fate, creator, chance or the like).
"Individually a man is born,
individually he dies, individually he falls (from this state of existence),
individually he rises (to another). His passions, consciounsness, intellect,
perceptions and impressions belong to the individual exclusively. Here, indeed
the bonds of relationship are not able to help nor save
one."
"All living beings own their present
form of existence to their own Karma.
"The sinners cannot annihilate works
by new works; the pious annihilate their works by abstention from works; the
wise and happy men, who got rid of the effects of greed, do not commit
sins."
"He who intends (to kill) a living
being but does not do it by his body, and he who unknowingly kills one, both are
affected by that.
"He who knows the tortures of beings
below (in hell); who knows the influx of sin and its stoppage; who knows misery
and its annihilation,�he is entitled to expound the
Kriyavada."
The passages cited above are
sufficient to prove that kriyavada expounded by Mahavira is in its
essential feature only a theory of soul and Karma. According to this
theory, there are as many souls as living individuals, and karma is produced
through acts, intentional and unintentional, that produce affects. On the future
of the soul. Thus the soul is not passive in the sense that it remains untouched
or unaffected by what a person does, but is susceptible to the influences of
Karma.
Even in some early Buddhist texts,
we find the traces of Kriy�v�da as expounded in Jainism. In A�guttara
Nik�ya, III, 74, for instance, a learned Lichchavi prince of Vai��l�, Abhaya
gives the following account of some Nigantha doctrines: "The Nigantha N�taputta
teaches the annihilation by austerities of the old Karma, and the
prevention by inactivity of new Karma. When Karma ceases, misery
ceases; when misery ceases, perception ceases; when perception ceases, every
misery will come to an end. In this way, a man is saved by pure annihilation of
sin (nijjar�) which is really effective."
Another piece of infomation about
Nigantha doctrines may be gathered from the Mah�vagga1. There a story is told of S�ha who
wanted to pay the Buddha a visit, but N�taputta tried to dissuade him from it
simply because the Niganthas held to Kriy�v�da while the Buddha's beliefs
were grounded in Akriy�v�da.
These passages throw light on the
doctrine of Karma expounded by Mah�v�ra. The theory of Karma has
specieal significance if we consider it along with the views of Mah�v�ra's
contemporary religious thinkers. The Vedic thinkers thought that the world has
been created and is governed by the gods. P�ra�a Kassapa maintained that when a
man acts or causes others to act, it is not his soul which acts or causes to
act.2 K�tyay�na advocated that whether a
man buys or causes to buy, kills or causes to kill, he does not thereby commit
any sin.3 Ke�akambain explained that life
ends here, and there is no world beyond. Denying the hereafter and the efficacy
of all social institutions founded upon beliefs in the future existence of man,
he cannon inform us whether and action is good or bad, virtuous or vicious, well
done or otherwise, whether it is in man's power to reach perfection or not, of
whether there is a heaven and a hell.4 Go��la denies that our happiness
and misery, weal and ill, are caused by us individually or determined by any
other cause than what we term fate or necessity.1
Karma is believed, according to Mah�v�ra,
to be the result of actions arising out of four sources: (1) the first source of
Karma is attachment to worldly things such as food, dwelling place etc.;
(2) it is produced by uniting one's body, mind, and speech to worldly things;
(3) it is also engendered by giving the reins to anger, pride, deceit or greed;
and (4) lastly by false belief which is a powerful source of it. Karma
accumulates energy and automatically works it off without any outside
intervention.
Karma are of eight kinds: 1.
Knowledge-obscuring (Jnanavarniya) 2. Intuition-obscuring (Darsanavaraniya) 3.
Feeling-producing (Vedaniya): It produces pleasure and pain. 4
Delusion-producing (Mohaniya): It obstructs right belief and right conduct. 5.
Longvity-determining (Ayu): It determines the period of stay of self in a
particular body. 6. Body-making (Nama): It makes different bodies;
7. Status-determining (gotra): It determines status in society;
8. Obstruction-generating (antaraya); It causes handicaps in the enjoyment
of wealth and power. To explain it further: 1. Just as the curtain obstructs the
knowledge of things inside the room, so also the knowledge-obscuring
Karma obstructs the expression of knowledge. 2. Just as a door-keeper
does not allow persons to meet the king. etc. so also the intuition obscuring
Karma does not allow apprehension of things. 3. Just as on licking honey
from the sharp edge of a sword, the person enjoys honey as well as suffers pain,
so also the feeling-producing Karma produces pleasure and pain in man. 4.
Just as wine stupefies a person, so also the delusion-producing Karma
perverts the person. 5. Just as wooden fetters stop the movement of a person, so
also the longevity-determining Karma obliges the soul to stay in a
particular body. 6. Just as the painter produces different pictures, so also the
body-making Karma makes different bodies. 7. Just as a potter makes
earthen pots of different sizes, so also the status-determining Karma
determines status in society. 8. Just as a treasurer generates obstructions in
giving money, etc. to others, so also the obstruction-generating Karma
causes handicaps in charity, in gains and in self-power. Mahavira teaches us to
purge ourselves of impurities arising from Karmas.
The Sah Khandagama1 speaks of fourteen
Gunasthanasd (stages of spiritual evolution). When the soul is on the
first stage (Mithyatva- Gunasthana) he is completed under the influence Mohaniya
(deluding) Karma and known nothing of spiritual truth. When the soul
attains to a state which enables him to distinguish between what is false and
what is true either through the influence to his past. Good deeds or through,
the teaching of his spiritual Guru, he comes to acquire what is true
faith with the result that he is spiritually awakened. He then realises the
great importana of ethico-spiritual conduct. He devotes himself to meditation and arrives at the state
Karmas which is state of embodied liberation. From the stage he at once
attains Siddhahood, disembodied liberation. It is a state of infinite, unique,
and unalloyed bliss, which is the same as Nirv�na or
Moksa.
Six
lesyas
The Lesyas are different
conditions produced in the soul by the influence of different Karmas.
They are, therefore, not dependent on the nature of the soul, but on the
Karma which accompanies the soul, and are, as it were, the reflection of
the Karmans on the soul. The Lesya is, according to the
Sutrakritnaga, a term signifying, 'colour'.
The Jaina religious efforts are
directed towards the acquisition of pure Lesya. This doctrine of the six Lesyas
is merely hinted at here and there in the Sutrakrtanga and fully explained in
the Uttaradhyayana. They are named in the following order: Krsna (black). Nila
(blue), Kapota (grey), Teja (red), Padma (Yellow) and Sukla
(White).
The black Lesya has the colour of a
rain-cloud, a buffalow's horn. The blue Lesya has the colour of the blue Ashoka
having red flowers. The grey Lesya has the colour of Atasi having blue flowers.
The red Lesya has the colour of vermilion. The yellow Lesya has the colour of
orpiment. The white Lesya has the colour of conch shell.
The smell of the bad Lesyas (viz.,
of the first three) is infinitely worse than that of a dead cow, dog or snake.
The smell of the three good Lesyas is infinitely more pleasant than that of
fragrant flowers and of perfumes when they are pounded. The touch of the bad
Lesyas is infinitely worse than that of a saw, the tongue of a cow, or the leaf
of the teak tree. The touch of the three good Lesyas is infinitely more pleasant
than that of cotton, butter or Siriska flowers.
He who acts, on the impulse of the
five sins, who commits cruel acts, and who is wicked and mischievous, is
described as one fostering the black Lesya (Krsna). He who nourishes anger,
ignorance, hatred, wickedness, deceit, greed, carelessness, love of enjoyment,
etc., develops the blue Lesya (Nila). He who is dishonest in words and acts, who
is a heretic, a deceiver, a thief, etc., develops the grey Lesya (Kapota). He
who is humble, well-disciplined, restrained, free from decit, who loves the
doctrine develops the red Le�y�. He who controls himself and is attentive
to his study and duties, develops the yellow Le�y�. He who controls
himself. who abstains from constant thinking about his misery, who is free from
passion, who is calm and who subdues his senses, develops the white
Le�y�. The black, blue, and grey Le�y�s are the Lowest Le�y�s; through
them, the soul is dragged into certain miserable courses of life. The red,
yellow and white Le�y�s are the good Le�y�s, for through them the
soul is brought into a state of happiness. The above six types of Lesyas
may be respectively illustrated by the attitude of individuals who want to
relish fruits (1) by uprooting the tree, (2) by cutting the trunk, (3) by
cutting big branches, (4) by cutting small branches, (5) by plucking only the
fruits, and lastly (6) by having those fruits that are fallen on the
ground.
Doctrine
of nayas
S�jaya is an important landmark in
the development of Mah�v�ra's philosophy. H. Jacobi assumes that in opposition to the
agnosticism (Aj��nav�da) of Sa�jaya, Mah�v�ra propounded his doctrine of
Nayas.1 The canonical texts just mention
Nayas without fixing up their number four or seven. It is true Bhagavati
and the but these texts contain works, Sy�dv�da
(Saptabha�giny�ya), according seven alternatives to a decisive
conclusion. Nayas are actually the ways of expressing the nature of things from
different points of view; They appealed to the masses because they encouraged a
tolerant attitude towards different religions.
The questions with regard to which
Sa�jaya suspended judgment were in fact the questions to be excluded from the
problems of knowledge. Is the world eternal, or is it non-eternal? Is it both
eternal and non-eternal, or is it neither eternal nor-non-eternal? Is the world
finite or infinite? Is there any idividual existence of man after death, or is
there not? Is the absolute truth seen face to face by a seer, comprehended by a
philosopher, part of real tangible existence, or not? It was with regard to
these and similar questions that Sa�jaya refused to submit any affirmative
answer.
It is with regard to these questions
that Mah�v�ra declared: "From these alternatives, you cannot arrive at truth;
from these alternatives, you are certainly led ?? The world is eternal as far as
that part is concerned which is the substratum of the (dravya) "world";
it is not eternal as far as its ever-changing state is concerned. In regard to
such questions, Mah�v�ra's advice to his disciples was neither to support those
who maintained that the world is eternal nor those who advocated that it is not
eternal. He would have said she same thing regarding such propositions as the
world exists and it does not exist; the world is unchangeable; the world is in
constant flux; the world has a beginning; the world has no beginning; the world
has an end; the world has no end;
etc. Those who are not well-instructed differ in their opinions and hold
fast to their dogmas without reason.3 And these were precisely the
questions which Buddha regarded as unthinkable on the ground that those who will
think about them are sure to go mad, without ever being able to find a final
answer, or to reach apodeictic certainty.4
If one has to answer such questions,
one should answer them by saying, contrary to both a dogmatist and a sceptic,
"It may be that in one sense, looking from one point of view, A is B. It may be
that in another sense, looking from another point of view, a is not-B. It may
again be that looking from a third point of view, A is both B and not-B. It may
equally be that when viewed from a fourth point of view, A is neither B nor
not-B."
Since one cannot prolong
life,2 one should not on that account be
careless. Those who acquire wealth by evil deeds and by adhering to wrong
principles, will lose it. People in this world and in the next cannot escape the
effect of their own actions. Wealth will never protect a careless man in this
world. Like a wise man, trust nobody but be always wary and on the
alert.
One cannot quickly arrive at
discernment; therefore one should exert oneself, abstain from pleasures,
understand the world, guard oneself and be impartial like a sage. External
things weaken the intellect and allure many; therefore keep them out of mind.
Remove pride, delusion, greed and deceit. Heretics, who are impure and proud,
are always subject to love and hatred, and they are wholly under the influence
of their passions. Despising them as unholy men, one should desire virtue till
the end of one's life.3
Death
Against (And with) One's will
There can be two ways of
dying4: (1) Death with one's will, and (2)
death against one's will. Death against one's will is the death of an ignorant
man, and it happens to him several times. Death with one's will is the death of
a wise man, and it happenes only once as, for instance, in the case of a
Kevalin. A fool being attached to pleasure does cruel actions. He who is
attached to pleasures and amusements will be caught in the trap of deceit. An
ignorant man kills, lies, deceives, drinks wine and eats meat, thinking that
there is nothing wrong in doing what he does. A man desirous of possessing
wealth and woman accumulates sins by his act and thought. Fools, who do cruel
deeds, will suffer violently. When death really comes, the fool trembles in
fear. He dies against his will. Some householders are inded superior to some
monks of self-control. But the saints are verily superior to all householders in
self-control. Those who are trained in self-control and penance, whether monks
or householders, go straight to the highest regions. The virtuous and the
learned do not tremble in the hour of death. A wise man will become calm through
patience and will have an undisturbed mind at the time of death. When the right
time for death has come, a faithful monk should in the presence of his teacher
overcomes all emotions of fear or joy, and wait for his end. When the time for
quitting the body comes the sage dies willingly.1
On
Discipline
A wise man shold not be angry if
reprimanded. He should rather, be a man of forbearing temperament. Nor should he
associate with mean persons and be guilty of doing anything mean or evil. He
should meditate by himself after having learnt his lessons. He should never
rufuse to confess if he does anything mean. He should not speak unasked for. He
should not tell a lie when asked. If the self is subdued, a person will be
happy. It is better to subdue one's own self by self-control and penance than be
subdued by others with fetters and corporal punishment.2 He should never do anything
disagreeable to his superiors either in words or deeds, openly or secretly. He
should always approach his teacher politely. An intelligent pupil will rise from
his seat and answer the teacher's call modestly and attentively3. A good pupil has the best opinion
of his teacher, for he thinks that his teacher treats him like his own son or
brother. He should not provoke his teacher's anger, nor should he himself lose
his temper. If the teacher is angry, he should pacify him by kindness and
appease him with folded hands. An intelligent man, who has learnt the sacred
text, takes his duties upon himself. When a worthy teacher is satisfied with a
pupil, he will transmit to him, his vast knowledge of the sacred texts, and the
pupil will gladden the heart of his teacher by his good deeds.1
Egoism, anger carelessness, illness,
and idleness are the five causes which render good discipline impossible.
Discipline calls upon the practitioner: (1) not to be fond of mirth, (2) to
control himself, (3) not to speak evil of others, (4) not to be without
discipline, (5) not to be of wrong discipline (6) not to be covetous, (7) not to
be choleric, and (8) to love truth.2
The saint accepts food with the
sacred aim of performing study, pursuing self-control and performing meditation.
He feeds the body for making the noble efforts of realising the true self, just as the
lamp is supplied with oil for seeing the objects clearly, Thus, the ascetics are
as good as going without food, and even if they accepts faultless food, since
thereby they do not fall a victim of Karma.
Actions
of ignorant and wise men
All men, who are ignorant of truth,
are subject to pain. A wise man who considers well the way that lead to bondage
and birth should search for the truth. A man of pure faith should realize the
truth that he will have to suffer for his own deeds.8
Clever talking will not bring
salvation. Even while sinking lower and lower through their sins, fools believe
themselves to be wise men. One should move about carefully in the endless
Sa�s�ra. One should never desire worldly objects but sutain one's body
only to annihilate one's Karma4.
It is an ignorant man who kills,
tells lies, robs on the highway, steals goods, and deceives
others.5
He
will go to the world of the Asuras (demons) against his will. Those men
who, through the exercise of various virtues, become pious householders, will
surely reap the fruit of their actions. A virtuous man cheerfully ascends to the
state of gods. He who has not given up pleasures will not be able to reach the
true end of his soul. He will go astray again and again though he has been tanught the right way. A sinner will be
born in hell and a virtous man will be born in heaven.
The best of the sages who are free
from delusion and possess perfect knowledge and faith, speaks for the benefit,
welfare, and the final liberation of all beings.
Vanity of
Worldly Pleasures
Pleasures, which are liked by the
ignorant and which prouduce pain, do not delight pious monks who do not care for
pleasures but are intent on the virtue of right conduct4. All singing is but prattle, all
dancing is but mocking, all ornaments are but a burden, all pleasures produce
but pain.3
He
alone will have to endure his sufferings, neither his kinsmen, nor his firends,
not his sons, not his relations, for Karma follows the
doer5. Life drags on towards death
continuously, and old age carries off the vigour of man.6 Time runs out and the days quickly
pass. Pleasures which men enjoy are not permanent. They leave them as soon as
they come just as a bird leaves a tree devoid of fruits. It one is unable to
give up pleasures, then one must do noble deeds, follow the doctrine and have
compassion on all creatures.1
Man's life is transitory and
precarious. He finds no delight in domestic life. Pleasures bring him only a
moments's happiness. Pleasures are an obstacle to the liberation from mundane
existence. and are a mine of evils.2 The soul cannot be apprehended by
the senses because it possesses no corporeal form; and since it has no corporeal
from, it is eternal. The fetter of the soul born of our evil deeds is called th
cause of worldly existence. Mankind is harassed by death. He who has acquired
righteousness may look upon death as his friend.3 Faith will enable him to put aside
attachment.4 The pleasures he enjoys cause the
continuance of his worldly existence.5 He should learn the doctrine
thoroughly, practise severe penance, and never dissipate his
energy.6
Through the possession of true
knowledge, through theavoidance of ignorance and delusion, and through the
destruction of love and hatred, one arrives at deliverance which is nothing but
bliss.7 One should serve the Guru
and the old teachers, avoid foolish people, apply oneself earnestly to study,
and to ponder over the meaning of the S�tras.8 A �rama�a who engaged in
austerities longs for righteousness should eat only the quantity of food
allowed, should select a companion of right understanding and should live in a
solitary place.9 If he does not meet with a suitable
companion, he should live by himself, abstaining from sins and not devoted to
pleasures.10 Love and hatred are caused by
Karma which has its origin in delusion. Karma is the root of birth
and death.1 Misery ceases with the absence of
delusion, delusion with the absence of desire, desire with the absence of greed,
and greed with the absence of property.2 Rich and delicious food should not
particularly be preferred, for it generally makes men overstrong, and desires
rush upon the strong.3 The mind of those who always live
in unfrequented lodgings, who eat simple food, and who subdue their senses, will
not be attached by passions which are vanquished as disease is by
medicine.4
Sinful
And wicked deeds
There are three ways of committing
sins : by one's own action, by commission, and by approval of the
deed.12 A learned or a virtuous man will
generally be punished for his deed when he is given to actions of
deceit.1 Men who are drowned in lust and
addicted to pleasures will be deluded for want of self control.2 Heroes of faight who do not commit
sins, and who exert themselves as they should, who subdue anger and fear, will
never kill living beings.3 The wicked wander about in the
circle of births, subject to old age and death. One should not kill living
beings in the threefold way (in thought, act and speech) if one is intent on
spiritual welfare and abstention from sins4. A sinner does not confess himself
to be wrong; instead he boasts of his sin when reprimanded. The adulteres are
severely punished.
Those who kill others for the sake
of their own pleasure are wicked.
Sinners, subject to love and hatred
and wrong-doing, acquire Karma arising from passions and commit many
sins. The careless commit sins in their thought, act and
speech.9 A cruel man does cruel things and
is thereby involved in other cruelties.10 Sinful undertakings will in the end
entail suffering.
Real
Br�hma�a
He who has no worldy attachment, who
does not repent of having become a monk and who takes delight in noble words is
called a Br�hma�a.1 He who is free from love, hatred,
and fear is called a Br�hma�a.2 A lean, self-subduing ascetic, who
reduces his flesh and blood, who is pious, and who has reached Nirv��a is
a Br�hma�a.3 He who thoroughly knows living
beings and does not injure them in any of the three ways (by his thought, word,
and deed), is a Br�hma�a4 He who does not speak untruth from
anger, or from greed, or from fear is a Br�hma�a.5 He who does not take anything which
is not given to him is a Br�hma�a.6 He who is not greedy, who lives
unknown, who has no house, is a Br�hma�a.9 10 One does not become a
�rama�a by the tonsure, nor a Br�hma�a by pronouncing the sacred syllable
Om, nor a Muni by living in the forest, nor a T�pasa by
wearing clothes of Ku�a-grass.11 One becomes a �rama�a by
equanimity, a Br�hma�a by chastity, a Muni by knowledge, and a
T�pasa by penance.12 One becomes a Br�hma�a or a
Kshatriya or a Vai�ya or a ��dra by one's
actions.13
The monk Should abscure the five
great vows (Mah�vratas) viz. not to kill, to speak the truth, not to
steal, no be chaste, and to have no possessions at all. A wise man should follow
the doctrines taught by the Jinas.2 A monk should be of a forbearing
nature, restrained, and chaste, He should live with his senses under
control.3 He should walk about in utter
indifference and bear everything, pleasant and unpleasant. He should not care
for respectful treatment or blame.4 He should endure with equanimity
both cold and heat, unpleasant feelings and physical disorders which attack the
human body.6 An ascetic will by means of his
simplicity enter the path of Nirv��a.7 He is neither grieved nor pleased.
He is intent on the benefit of his soul and strives for the highest
good.8
The
Samitis And The Guptis
There are five Samitis and three
Guptis which are called Pravacanamata, since they guard the belief, knowledge,
and conduct of the saint in such a way as the mother protects her
child8. The Samitis are the following : 1.
going by paths trodden by men, beasts, carts, etc., and looking carefully so as
not to cause the death of any living being; 2. gentle, sweet, and religious
speech; 3. accepting and eating faultless food; 4. careful mental state in
receiving and keeping things necessary for religious life : 5. answering the
call of nature and the like in an unfrequented place and devoid of insects and
seeds. The three Guptis are the following: 1. restraint of mind; It means the
controlling of mind from sensual pleasures by engaging it in meditation and
study. 2. restraint of body : It means refraining from bodily actions of
binding, piercing and beating human beings; 3. restraint of speech : It
means renouncement of gossip concerning women, state theft and food. Thus Gupti
negates vicious activities while Samiti affirms virtuous performance of
activities.