Chapter - VI

Historical Role Of Jainism

Jainism was dominant in Magadha during the reign of the Nandas (364-324 B.C.) and the Mauryas (324-300 B.C.). Afterwards, it migrated to the different regions of the North, South and West, and flourished there. In the Gupta period, Jainism received no royal patronage, and therefore declined. In the South, Jainism continued to develop because of the encouragement given by the rulers. The period from the eighth to the twelfth century A.D. is regarded as the golden period in the history of Jainism because the Jaina monks, statesmen and merchants contributed to its development. A large number of people accepted Jainism, and they formed castes. Numerous temples were built, and images were installed in them. Jaina scholars enriched the different languages by their works. Afterwards, Jainism had setbacks during the medieval period, under the Muslims, but it could not be extinct completely because of devotion of the Árävakas and saints to Jainism.

1.     Jainism Under The Nandas (364-324 B.C.)

The Nandas were the most powerful rulers of Magadha. So great was their power that Alexander, who invaded Punjab at that time, did not dare to move towards the east. The Nanda ruler Mahäpadma claimed the sole sovereign who destroyed all the other ruling princes. It seems that he acquired Kaliõga and annexed Kosala to his kingdom.

Jainism appears to have been followed during the reign of the Nandas in Magadha. From the Udayagiri cave inscription¹ of Khäravela, it is known that Nanda king removed the Jaina image from Kaliõga to Päûaliputra. This throws light on the antiquity of the Jaina sculptural art as well as the fact that Nanda was the follower of Jainism.

According to Jaina tradition, the Nanda dynasty as such had a line of Jaina ministers beginning with Kalpaka². It was with the help of this minister that king Nanda uprooted all the reigning Kshatriya dynasties³, and as the Jaina tell us, all the ministers of the Nandas were his descendants⁴. The minister of the ninth Nanda was Áakatäla, who had two sons. The elder was Sthülabhadra and the younger son was called Árïyaka. After the death of Áakatäla, Nanda offered the minisership to his elder son Sthülabhadra, but the latter refused and, perceiving the vanity of the world, took Dikshä or joined the order under Sambhütavijaya⁵, the sixth pontiff of the Jaina church. The ministership was finally given to his brother Árïyaka who was in the king's office⁶.

That the Jainas were powerful in the days of the Nandas is also clear from the Sanskrit play Mudrä Räkshasa, which dramatises the story of Chandragupta's accession and tells us that the Jainas held a prominent position at that time, and that Chäîakya who was the prime agent in the revolution, employs a Jaina as one of the Chief emissaries⁷

The Baâali inscription, which G.H. Ojha, records as of the year 84 of Mahävïra Nirväîa Saãvat, proves the existence of the Jainism at Nagri even in the fifth century B.C. during the reign of the Nandas⁸. K.P. Jayaswal agrees with G.H. Ojha in the reading, but he refers the year 84 to the Nanda era, which was counted from 458 B.C. and thus the instance inscription seems to be of the fourth century B.C.⁹ D.C. Sircar takes this Baâali inscription to be of the Second or First century B.C. According to him, this inscription, incised during the reign of king Bhägavata of the Áuîga dynasty¹⁰, seems to be a record of the pious working of an inhabitant of Mädhyamikä.

2.     Account of the Greek Writers of Western India

The Greek writers supply very valuable information about the Indian philosophers whom Alexander met. Sirabo mentions two sects of philosophers — one called the Brachmaîes and the other Germanes.¹¹ Brachmanes represent the Brähmaîas and the Germanes, evidently a corruption of Sarmanes, which represents the Sanskrit Áramaîa (a Jaina ascetic). But the question is who these people were. Some say that these are Buddhist saints, but they seem to be Jaina sanits because they have been described as naked, and they are called by the name Gymnosophists. Nakedness is a special characteristic of the Jaina monks. Paliny says that their philosophers whom they call Gymnosophists, are accustomed to remain in one posture with their eyes immovably fixed on the Sun from dawn to dusk and to stand on the burning sands all day long now on one foot and now on the other.¹ One Oneslcritus says that these sages went about naked, inflicted hardships on themselves and were held in highest honour and when invited, they did not visit any-body but requested the persons concerned to come to them if they wanted to participate in their conversation.¹² This description applies to Digambara Jaina monks.

The Greek observers found women studying philosophy along with men. But they all led a life of extreme austerity.² And as the Brähmaîas did not generally admit their women to their philosophy, these women must have been, therefore, probably, the Sädhvis of the Jaina church.

Among these sages, one Kälnos who accompanied Alexander probably to instruct him in the matters of religion. His real name, according to Plutarch, was Sphines; and he received the name Kälnos among the Greeks because in saluting the persons, he used the word 'Käle'. It is probably the Sanskrit from Kalyäîa which is commonly used in addressing a person and signifies good, just or distinguished. When he became ill at Pasargadi, this being the first sickness he ever had, he put an end to his life in his seventy third year without heeding the entreaties of the king.¹³ This type of voluntary death is specially found among the Jainas. The Ratnakaraîda Árävakächära (Chap. 5) of Samantabhadra (about second century A.D.) dilates on sallekhanä which consists in abandoning the body for the accumulation of merit in calamities, famines, extreme old age and incurable diseases.

The Indian sages, according to the Greek writers, have been divided into two categories (1) the Brähmaîas and (2) Áramaîas. The Brähmaîas succeeded by right of birth to this kind of divine wisdom as to a priesthood. They are one family, the descendents of one father and mother. The Áramaîas, on the other hand, are taken from all Indian castes differently from all who wish to give themselves to the study of divine beings.¹⁴ These saints were probably Jaina saints, because there was no question of caste restriction in Jainism.

These naked Samnoi practise truth, make predictions about futurity and worship a kind of pyramid beneath which they think the bones of some divinity lie buried.¹⁵ This practice is also noticed among the Jainas who used to construct the Stüpas, specimens of which are found at Mathura.

According to the Greek writers, the society was divided into the five classes in accordance with the occupations. Some cultivate the soil; very many follow war and other trades. The noblest and richest manage public affairs, administer justice and sit in the council with the kings. A fifth class devotes itself to the philosophy prevalent in the country which almost assumes the form of religion and the members always put an end to their lives by burning themselves on funeral pile.¹⁶

The characteristics and practices of these saints indicate that they were Jaina saints. Jainism was prevalent in western India on the eve of the coming of the Greeks in India. The Jaina monks and nuns were found in such a large number that they caught the attention of the foreigners. If it is in the border provinces, it may have been in existence even in the adjacent region like Rajasthan.

3.     Jainism Under The Mauryas (324-187 B.C.)

         Chandragupta (324-300 B.C.)

The Maurya was founded by Chandragupta Maurya, who seems to have belonged to some ordinary family. He is one of the greatest emperors of India. He is first Indian ruler to bring about the unification of Northern India by his conquests and to rule over such a vast empire. From him actually, a continuous as well as unified history starts and he is, therefore, regarded as the first historical emperor. He is the earliest emperor in Indian history whose historicity can be established on the solid ground of ascertained chronology.We can locate him accurately in both time and space. With the help of Chäîakya known as Kauûilya, he overthrew the Nandas and established the rule of the Mauryas. He liberated North-Western India from the rule of Selecus, the Greek Viceroy of Alexander. He extended his empire by further conquests of Saurarhûra and some regions of South India.

There are Jaina traditions regarding Chandragupta's association with the South. His conquest of some regions of the South India is also attested by the inscriptions of Aáoka found at some sites. He established an efficient administration as known from the Arthaáätra of Kauûilya and the Megasthaness Indica edited by Mcerindle.

Jain tradition avers that Chandragupat Maurya was a Jain. Both Tiloyapaîîati (600 A.D.) and Räjavalïkathä claim him to be Jain. Jainism was prevalent in his reign. The Jaina monks were frequently seen and mentioned within the empire of Chandragupta not only by Indians, but by Greek historians as well, Megasthenese, the Greek envoy to Chandragupta's court, mentions of Áramaîas in his empire. He also says that Chandragupta submitted to devotional teaching of the Áramaîas as opposed to the doctrines of the Brähmaîas.¹⁷

It seems that Chandragupta was quite young and experienced when ascended the throne in or about 324 B.C. He must have been under fifty when his reign terminated twenty-four years later. When king Chandragupta Maurya was ruling over North India (either from Ujjain or from Päûaliputra), a great twelve years' famine was foretold in Northern India by the Árutakevalin Bhadrabähu. He was at this time a great sanit of Jainism. When this prophecy began to be fulfilled, the saint led twelve thousand Jainas to the South and settled at Áravaîa Belagolä. At this time, Chandragupta abdicated the throne and accompanied his teacher Bhadrabähu. Bhadrabäu soon died, and Chandragupta survived after him for twelve years, and died in Sallekhanä.

Such famines are possible during this period as known from some very early inscriptions.The Mahasthäna stone plaque inscription¹⁸ found in the Bogra District of Bengal records an endowment to the Pañchavargïya Buddhist monks. The Sohgaura copper-plate inscription¹⁹ found in the Gorakhpur District of U.P. records a provision of grains and fodders during famines.

The tradition of migration of the great Árutakeval in Bhadrabähu and his disciple, the Mauryan emperor Chandragupta due to famine in the South is corroborated by the late literary and epigraphic evidences. Besides, there are the names of monuments at Áravaîabelagola in the memory of Bhadrabähu and Chandragupta Maurya. The Bôihatkathäkoáa of Harisena dated 931 A.D. Ratnanandi's Bhadrabähu Charita of about 1450 A.D., the Kannaâa works Munivaãáäbhudaya of C. 1680 A.D. and the Räjavalïyakathä mention this incident. Several inscriptions²⁰ of Áravaîabelagolä refer to this tradition also. The oldest of these inscriptions is of about 600 A.D. Two inscriptions of about 900 A.D. describe the hill at Áravaîabelagolä as having its summit marked by the impress of the feet of Bhandrabähu and Munipati Chandragupta. Two inscripations of the year 1128 and 1169 A.D. are engraved with the names of Bhadrabähu Árutakevalin and Chandragupta. Another inscription of the year 1433 A.D. speaks of Yatindra Bhadrabähu and his disciple Chandragupta. All these agree to the main facts of breaking out famine in Bihar and migration of Jainas towards the South after the death of Bhadrabähu and Chandragupta at Chandragiri hill in the fourth Century B.C. The smaller hill Chandragiri is said to have derived its affiliation from the fact that Chandragupta was the first of the saints who lived and performed penance there. On the same hill is a cave named after Bhadrabähu and also a shrine called Chandragupta Basti, as it was erected by Chandragupta.

Both Rice Lewis²¹ Narasimhachar²² who have studied the Jaina inscriptions of Áravaîa Belagolä thoroughly, give a verdict in favour of Jaina tradition. According to both these scholars, credence may be given to the late traditions of migration of the Jainas to the South under the leadership of Árutakevalï Bhadrabähu and his royal disciple Chandragupta Maurya. This tradition also forms one of the links connected with the Digambara—Ávetambara Schism in the Jainas Saãgha. This tradition also shows that Chandragupta Maurya was a Jaina. Edward Thomas²³, who has taken into consideration, the Greek accounts comes to the same opinion. Hoernle²⁴ also accepts the immigration of Árutakevalï Bhadrabähu to the South.

On the other hand, J.F. fleet²⁵ And J. Charapentier²⁶ tried to maintain that this Jaina tradition had no historical basis. According to J.F. Fleet, the name Bhadrabähu of the two Ächäryas is found mentioned in the Digambara Paûûävalïs—one the last Árutakevalï Bhadrabähu and the other Bhadrabähu from which the Paûûävalï of Nandi Ämnäya of the Sarasvatï Gachchha. His disciple was Guptigupta. According to J.F. Fleet's view, the saint who migrated to the South was Bhadrabähu, and Chandragupta was another name of Guptigupta. J.f. Fleet's contention is wrong. There is no evidence to assume Guptigupta and Chandragupta as one. There is no reference to famine of twelve years during this time. He is not known to be initiated to monkhood after abdication of the throne.

J. Charpentier discredits the account of the Digambaras and asserts that Bhadrabähu retired to Nepal in order to pass the reminder of his life in penance, leaving the succession to Sthülabhadra, a disciple of Bhadrabähu's own contemporary monk, Sambhütavijaya.

Some of the modern Scholars of great reputes and authority have come to the conclusion that Chandragupta can safely be called a Jaina on the Authority of this tradition. The Jaina books (fifth century A.D.) and later Jaina inscriptions, observe K.P. Jayaswal²⁷, "claim Chandragupta as a Jaina imperial ascetic. My studies have compelled me to respect the historical data of the Jaina writings, and I see no reason why we should not accept the Jaina claim that Chandragupta at the end of his reign accepted Jainism and abdicated and died as a Jaina ascetic."

To quote V.A. Smith²⁸, who has ultimately leaned towards Jainism. "The only direct evidence throwing light on the manner in which the eventful reign of chandragupat Maurya came to an end is that of Jaina tradition.  The Jainas always treat that great emperor as having been a Jaina, and no adequate reason seems to discredit their belief." Besides this, H. Jacobi²⁹ tells us, 'The date of Bhadrabähu's death is placed indentically by all Jaina authors from Hemachandra down to the most modern Scholiast in the year 170 A.V. And this, according to our caluclation, falls in about 291 B.C. This date of the great pontiff's Nirväîa exactly coincides with that of Chandragupta, who reigned from 321-297 B.C. Early evidence or evidences for Chandragupta Maurya being a Jaina might have disappeared, but still there are persistent late literary as well epigraphical traditions to prove him Jaina.

Chandragupta Maurya is known to have performed the consecration ceremony of the images and temples. In a village of Ghänghäîï, at a distance of twenty seven Km. frm Jodhpur in Rajasthan, there is an old temple of Pärávanätha. In V.S. 1662, many images were discovered in the tank of this place. By chance, the poet Sundaragaîi went on pilgrimage to this place and saw the inscription on the image and examined it. He is said to have read the inscription by the miraculous power given to him by the goddess Ambikä. He immediately composed the poem on it. According to it, Samräû Chandragupta made the golden image of Pärávanätha and its pratishthä was probably performed through Áruti-Kevalï Bhadrabähu.³⁰ This evidence is of a very late period and so there is much doubt about its correctness.

The Jainas legends tell that all the monks did not migrate from Magadha to the South and some preferred to remain in their old land. Apprehending the danger that could threaten the loss and distortion of the original teachings of Mahävïra Sthülabhadra, who according to Ávetambara tradition, assumed the leadership of the Saãgha in Magadha, summoned a council of Jaina Munis in 307 B.C. for the compilation of the teachings of Mahävïra which were preserved in the Pürvas. Thus, the sacred lore which was in a state of decay, was put in order. The Päûaliputra Council is referred to in the Ävaáyakachürîi of Jinadäsagaîi who flourished in the Second half of the seventh century A.D., and by Haribhadra who lived in the middle of the eight century A.D.

BindusÄra (C. 300-273 B.C.)

Chandragupta Maurya was succeeded by Bindusära, whose reign is important for continued links with the Greek princes. Bindusära followed the faith of his parents. The Jaina tents style him as a Jaina and entitle him as 'Siãhasena'.

Aáoka (C.273-236 B.C.)

Bindusära was succeeded by his son Aáoka. After his accession to the throne, Aáoka fought only one major war called the Kaliõga-War. Seeing the cruelty of the war, he adopted Buddhism. Though he professed Buddhism he preached 'Dhamma' based on ehthics but not religious dogmas. He is regarded as one of the greatest figures in history. H.G. Wells in the Outline of History describes him as 'the greatest of Kings' because he tried not only for the material but also spiritual welfare of the people.

It seems that in the beginning, Aáoka followed Jainism, the religion of his ancestors. The Siãhalese tradition says that during the life time of his father, when Aáoka was Viceroy of Ujjain, he developed affairs with a girl of a Áreshûhin named Devï who resided at Vidiáä and whom he married. It is possible that Devi belonged to some Jaina family.

It seems that even after Aáoka became Buddhist, he was more or less inclined towards Jainism. The use of the term 'Äsinava', distinction between it and Päpa and the inclusion of the passions of the Jaina lists—violence, cruelty, anger, conceit and envy are enough to convince any body that in all likelihood, Aáoka has adopted and assimilated some psychological concepts of Jainism.

There are several definite evidences to prove that Aáoka was influenced by Jainism. He emphasised on 'non-slaughter of animate beings and non-injury to creatures in Pillar Edict-V. In Rock Edict-I, he mentions that many hundred of living beings were formerly slaughtered every day in the kitchen of Priyadaráï, but now only three living creatures were killed daily for the sake of curry. Even this animal is not slaughtered regularly. These three living beings shall not be killed in future. The Pillar Edict VII mentions Nirgranûhas known as Jaina Árävakas. Dharmamahämätras appointed for the propagation of Dhamma by Aáoka were also recruited from the Nirgranthas and the Áramaîas.

Samprati

When Kuîäla lost his claim to the throne of Magadha on account of his blindness, his son Samprati was declared as the rightful successor by Aáoka. Recently, the historicity of Samprati has been proved because Samprati Vihära after the name of Samprati was existing at Vadamänu in the Krishna-Valley during the second century A.D.³¹ Under the influence of Suhastin, the leading saint of the Jaina Commuinty under Mahägiri, Smprati was converted to Jainism. He tried to spread Jainism by every means in his power, working as hard for Jainism as Aáhoka had done for Buddhism. He is therefore regarded as a Jaina Aáoka. According to Jaina scriptures, he had decided to rinse his mouth in the moring, only after hearing the news of a new temple having been built. Besides, he got all the old and existing temples repaired and set up into all of them the idols mode of gold, stone, silver, brass and of a mixture of fine metals and performed their 'Añjanaáaläkä Ceremony i.e. declared them fit for worship. Within three years and a half, he got one hundred and twenty-five thousand new temples built, thirty-six thousand repaired, twelve and a half millions of idols consecrated and ninety-five thousand metal idols prepared.³²

Samprati is said to have erected Jaina temples throughout within his empire. He founded Jaina monasteries even in the non-Aryan countries, and almost all ancient Jaina temples or monuments of unknown origin are ascribed by the popular voice to Samprati. It may also be noted that all the Jaina monuments of Rajasthan and Gujrat, whose builder is not known, are attributed to Samprati³³. Tod³⁴ attributes an old temple at Kumbhalmera to Samprati. At Nadlai, there is a Jaina temple dedicated to Ädinätha. On the seat of the image is engraved an inscription dated V.S. 1686 which speaks of its being rebuilt by the whole Jaina Community of Nadalai. The temple was originally erected by Samprati³⁵. In the Seventeenth century A.D., Jainas at Nadalai believed that the temple was built by Samprati; so there was an old tradition to this effect. He is said to have celebrated the installation ceremony of the image of Padmaprabha at a place named Gharighäîï, through Ärya Suhasti in V.N.S.-203³⁶.

Samprati is known to have propagated Jainism not only in his kingdom but also in adjacent countries. He sent out missionaries as far as South India to preach Jainism in peninsula where his creed secured widespread popularity and made the regions of Andhra, Dravida, Mahäräshûra and Coorg safe for Jaina monks. According to literary tradition, Salisuka, brother of Samprati Maurya, contributed to the spread of Jainism in Kathiawad. Besides this, Samprati took other steps for the propagation of Jainism. From the Jaina books, it is known that he started Saãgha from Ujjain to Áatruñjaya in the company of Suhasti with five thousand Áramaîas. He is also said to have convoked a council for the propagation of Jaina religion under Suhasti.

This account for the propagation of Jainism by Samprati seems to be hyperbolic but there seems to be some truth in it. The recent excavations³⁷ in the Krishna valley conducted at a Vaddamanu identified with the ancient Place Vardhamäna named after the last Jaina Tïrthaõkara yielded the Jaina remains such as Stüpas, ellipsoidal structures, stone sculptures on pillars, slabs and toraîas confirm the activities of Samprati for the propagation of Jainism. The inscriptions inscribed on potsherds reveal the names of Tïrthaõkaras Vôishabhanätha, Vardhamäna, Aranätha etc. These remains seem to have belonged to the Suõga-Sätavähana period. The names of important Jaina preceptors and their disciples with the details of Gaîas, Gotras and Áäkhäs are found engraved on pottery pieces. The names such as Samprativihära and Jinonavihära are found inscribed. These inscriptions give reference to female devotees. The pillara, Süchïs (cross slabs), Ushaîishas (coping slabs) and the Toraîa contained a variety of religions symbols like Stüpas, Aharmachakra, Ratnatriya, Nandipada, Kevalavôiksha, Svastika and so on.

The remains of the foundation of the oldest Jaina temple have been discovered at Lohänipura, near Patha. Two torsos of the Jaina image were also found at Patna. This proves that Jaina temple and images were worshipped during the Maurya period, in Magadha.

'Nigaûasa Vihära Dipa' inscribed on one of the pot sherds found at Kasrawad³⁸ proves the existence of the Jaina monastery. It means that the lamp from Nigaûa's monastery was used for lighting the rooms. This monastery may be attributed to the Maurya period.

When Ärya Suhastin visited Ujjain in order to worship the image of Jïvanta Svämï, Avanti Sukumäla took the vocation of monkhood from him³⁹. After the death of Avanti Sukumäla, a Stüpa was erected in order to commemorate him and the image of Pärávanätha was installed in it. After some time, the Stüpa became barren, and it was known by the name of Kuâugeávara (God of the Great Forest).

Being a holy place, Ujjain was frequently visited by Jaina saints such as Chaîâarudra, Bhadrakagupta, Äryarakshita and Ärya Äshäâha⁴⁰. Vajra dwelt at Tumba-vanagräma (Tumain).

After Siãhagiri had taught him the even Aõgas, Vajrasvämi went from Daáapara to Bhadragupta at Avanti (Ujjayini) to learn the twelfth viz. the Dôishûivädaõga. He was the last who knew the complete ten Pürvas, and from him arose the Vajraáäkhä⁴¹. Daáapura (Mandsor) is the birth place of the Jaina Saint Äryarkshit who learned from Vajra Svämi nine Pürvas, and a fragment of the tenth, and taught them to his pupil Durbalikäpushpamitra⁴². The seventh schism in Jainism occurred at this place. Jaina traditions aver that Vajr Svämï and other Jaina pontiffs, obtained liberation in the hills Kunjarävarta and Rathävarta in the neighbourhood of Vidiáä, now known as Bhilsa⁴³.

4.     Jainism Under The Áuõgas (187-75 B.C)

         Pushyamitra (C. 187-151 B.C.)

Bôihadratha, the last Maurya Emperor, was murdered in the presence of the army by the Brähmaîa Commander-in-Chief Pushyamitra who became the founder of the Áuõga dynasty. The first event of his reign was his confilict with Vidarbha. He had also to face the Greek invasion of Indo-Bactrian rulers Demetrious and Menander. He performed two horse sacrifices. According to the Divyävadäna he was a persecutor of Buddhism. Pushyamitra was succeeded by his son Agnimitra who had the exprience of governing Vidiáä as Viceroy under his father. Agnimitra's son Vasumitra in his earlier days defeated the Yavanas. The Indo-Greek king Antialkidas of Taxila sent his ambassador Heliodorus, son of Dion (Diya) to the court of the Áuõga ruler Bhägavata or Käáïputra Bhägabhedra. The Käîvas, also Brähmaîas seized power about seventy-two B.C.

Generally, a very common charge has been levelled against the Áuõga king Pushyamitra that he was a staunch Brähmaîa and caused the death of Buddhist and Jaina monks. This assumption is based on the version of the Buddhist text Divyävadäna⁴⁴ which says that he put the price of one hundred dinäras for the head of single monk. This account of Pushyamitra's vendetta against the monks seems to be exaggerated because a similar vengeance against the Äjivikas and Nirgranthas is attributed to Pushyamitra in the same tent, where it is stated that he put the price of one dinär for the head of Nirgrantha. He is said to be responsible for destroying monasteries and monks from Magadha to Jullandhara area in the modern Punjab. Täränätha also affirms that Pushyamitra was the ally of unbelievers and himself burnt monasteries and slew monks.

But the above charges for the prosecution of the Buddhists and the Jainas against Pushyamitra Áuõga do not seem to be correct. In fact, the Brähmaîas did not interfere with the Áramaîa religions—Buddhism and Jainism. Neither Buddhism nor Jainism had eclipsed, for some magnificent Buddhist and Jaina monuments were erected in the kingdom of the Áuõgas. Therefore it can be concluded that the Divyävadäna, no doubt, gives a shortsighted view. The Buddhist monuments of Bharhut and Sanchi erected during the sovereignty of the Áuõgas do not bear out the theory that Áuõgas were the leaders of a militant Brähmanism. The causes of persecutions against Buddhism and Jainism by Pushyamitra may be owing to the personal and potitical reasons.

That the Jainas were holding good position in Uttar-Pradesh is also evident from two inscriptions⁴⁵ of the second century B.C. recovered from Pabhosä near Kauáämbï which are of much historical importance.

No.1 By Äsäâhasena, the son of Gopälï Vaihidarï (i.e. Vaihidara-princess, and maternal uncle of king Bahasatimitra), son of Gopälï, a cave was caused to be made in the tenth year of---- of the Kaááapïya Arhats.

No.2. Caused to be made by Äshäâhasena, son of the Vaihidara (Vaihidara-princess, and) son of king Bhägavata, son of the Tevani (i.e. Traivarîa-Princess, and) son of king Vaãgapäla, son of Áonakäyana (Saunakäyana of Adhichchhatra).

These two inscriptions of the second or first century B.C. are of historical value because they give the pedigree of the early kings of Adhichchhatra, the capital of the once mighty kingdom of Northern Pañchäla. These inscriptions record their dedication by Ashäâhasena from Ahichchhatra for the use of Kasyapïya Arhats. On the basis of these inscriptions, it can be said that the Jaina monks enjoyed royal patronage during the Áuõga period.

Spread of Jainism

Starting from its original home in Magadha, Jainism had slowly spread to different countries like Kaliñga to the South-east, Mathura and Malva to the West and Deccan and the Tamil lands to South. At the same time, it appears to have lost its hold over Magadha, the land of its origin and grew powerful in the West and the South. After some initial success in winning over royal patronage, which was, in part the cause of its rapid growth and expansion, it soon lost its hold in the North, but retained the support of the middle classes, like merchants and bankers, for a long time. This loss of kingly support in the North, was, however, made good by the favour shown to the religion by some ruling families of the Deccan. By the end of the third century A.D., Jainism had taken firm roots throughout India.

5.     The Chedi (Mahä-Meghavähana) Dynasty of Kaliñga (Orissa)

The realy migration of the Jainas to the country of Kaliõga can be seen from the famous Khäravela inscription of Udayagiri dated second or first century B.C. As this inscription refers this to the removal of a Jaina image from kaliõga to Päûaliputra by the Magadhan king Nanda, it is proved that Jainism was followed in the fourth century B.C. Here the faith took firm root and flourished for a long period.

The Udayagiri cave inscription of Khäravela may be regarded as the 'Khäravela Charita' because it gives information about the events of his life. He belonged to the third generation of the Mahämeghavähana dynasty, and he was an offshoot of the Chedi royal family. He is also knwon to be a descendant of the Aila line. Mahäräja Khäravela is one of the most remarkable figures of ancient Indian History. As this inscription starts with the invocation (Mangalä Charaîa-Namo Arahantänam and Namo-Sava Siddhänam, Khäravela, the Chedi ruler, is proved to be the follower of Jainism.

It is possible to determine the date of Khäravela by properly identifying the contemporary rulers of Khäravela mentioned⁴⁶ in this inscription. K.P. Jayaswal and R.D. Banerji are inclined to assign him to the first half of the second century B.C. while other scholars like D.C. Sircar⁴⁷ place him in the first century B.C. or first century A.D. His title Mahäräja, later script of the inscription, developed Kävya style and sculptures of Mañchapuri prove the late date. The Nanda king is known to have excavated the canal three centuries earlier than Khäravela. As the Nandas held sway over the Magadhan empire in the fourth century B.C., Khäravela, who flourished more than 300 years after Nandaräja, should be assigned to the first century B.C.

Khäravela, while a prince, played different games befitting the young age of the prince with a lovely body and fair brown complexion. He bore the noble and auspicious bodily marks. As to prince Khäravela's education ability, he became an expert in matters relating to writing, coinage, accounting, administration and procedures.

That Khäravela did marry is beyond any dispute. The very fact that the Mañchapuri cave on the Udayagiri Khaîâagiri was dedicated by the chief queen (Agra-Mahïshi) of Khäravela for the use of Jaina monks in Kaliõga, goes to prove that Khäravela had more than one queen. Again in the seventh year record in the Hathigumpha text, there appears a fragmentary reference to Khäravela's wife. In the seventh year of his reign, Khäravela's famous wife of the Vajiraghara obtained the dignity of auspicious motherhood⁴⁸.

He married a daughter of the greatgrandson of King Hastisiãha, probably of the Laläka lineage.⁴⁹

Immediately after his accession to the throne, Khäravela launched on a career of a dia-vijaya (conqueror)⁵⁰. In the second year of his reign, he is said to have sent a large army to the Western countries without even thinking of Sätakraîi who apparently ruled the country to the West of Kaliõga. In the course of his expedition, the Kaliõga army is further said to have reached the banks of the Kôishîä bena (Kôishîä) where the city called Rishika-nagara was threatened. As there is no indication that Khäravela's army came into conflict with Sätakarîi or that Rishika-nagara formed a part of the latter's dominions, the Kaliõga king's calim seems to suggest that friendly relations existed between the two kings and that the Kaliõga army passed to the Ôishika country on the Krishîä through Sätakarîi's territories without difficulty. But a suggestion that Khäravela's army attacked a city on the Krishnä in the Southern part of Sätakarîi's kingdom cannot also be regarded as altogether impossible. King Sätakarîi seems to be no other than an early Sätavähana ruler of that name, very probably Sätakarîi I who is known from the Nänäghäûa inscription of Näganikä. In the fourth year of his reign, Khäravela seems to have occupied the capital of a prince named Vidyädhara. In the Jaina literature, the Vidyädharas are known as a tribal people residing in the Vindhya mountain⁵¹.

In the same year, Khäravela also subdued the Räshûrikas and Bhojakas. The Räshûrikas stand for the Maräûhä region, and the Bhojakas probably for the Berar (M.P.) region. In the eighth year, Khäravela destroyed Goradhagiri, a hill fortress in Baräbar hills and attacked the city of Rajagôiha (modern Rajgir in the Gaya District, Bihar)⁵². The news of these exploits of Khäravela caused so much terror in the heart of Yavana king that he fled away to Mathura. The Yavana ruler whose name is sometimes doubtfully read as Dimitra or Dimata (Demetrius), was probably a later Indo-Greek ruler of the eastern Punjab. It is possible that this contemporary ruler of Mathura of Khäravela was not Yavana ruler Demetrius but a ruler of the Mitra dynasty.

In his eleventh year, Khäravela destroyed the city of Pithuâa, the capital of a king of the Masulipatam region in the Tamilanadu area. Pithuâa⁵³ is probably a coastal city situated somewhere in the South of the Kaliõga country. He threatened the rulers of Uttarapätha (probably North-Western India) in the next year, and also defeated the king of the Magadha people, probably on the banks of the Gangä. The name of the Magadha king is given in Prakrit as Bahasatimita which seems to stand for Sanskrit Bôihatsvätimitra rather than for Bôihaspatimitra as is usually supposed Bôihatsvätimitra, a contempory of Khäravela, seems to be the king of that name mentioned as the sister's son of Äshäâhasena of the Pabhosä inscriptions⁵⁴ and as the father of the queen of a Mathura king referred to the Mora inscription. He seems to have been related to the Mitra kings of Magadha whose records and  coins have been found in the Gaya District. To avenge the humiliation of Kaliõga during the time of the Nandas and the Mauryas, Khäravela carried away much booty from Aõga and Magadha together with certain Jaina images originally taken away by a Nanda king from Kaliñga. In the same year, Khäravela also defeated the Päîâya king of the Far South.

As regards the extent of Khäravela's empire, it included Udra, Utkala and Kaliõga. These regions were under his suzerainty, and were directly ruled. His capital was Kaliõganagara which may be identified with Mukhaliõgam or Tosali or Sisupägarh.⁵⁵

As a ruler, Khäravela thought of the welfare of the subjects and spent large sums of money on their account. Himself a Past-master of music, he often entertained the people by arranging dancing and musical performances as well as festivities and many gatherings. He enlarged an irrigation canal originally excavated by a Nanda king three centuries ago. He ws also a great builder. On one occasion, the capital city of Kaliõga was devastated by stormy wind and the king had to rebuild numerous gates, walls and houses that had been damaged and to restore all the gardens. He built a magnificent place called called the Mahävijaya Prasäda.

Khäravela was a zealous patron of Jainism and he sent missionaries for its propagation. He convened a conference of learned Jainas on the Kumäiï Hill and consolidated the Aõgas or sacred tents of Jainism. As a devout Jaina, he excavated a number of caves in Kumärï hill to provide resident Arhats with accommodation and shelters for resting their bodies. He also constructed caves for the honoured recluses of established reputation as well as for Yatis, hermits and sages, hailing from a hundred directions. He also set up many pillars and shrine posts. Besides, the inscription of the chief wife of Khäravela records a dedication of cave in honour of Arahanta for the use of Jaina monks⁵⁶.

Though Khäravela was a Jaina, he was like Aáoka tolerant in the matters of religion. The royal epithet Savapäsaîâa Püjaka' (worshipper of all religious) attests beyond doubt that Khäravela observed the principle of religious, toleration. Similarly, the epithet 'Savadeväyatana Saãkära Käraka' (the repairer of all temples of the deities) has no meaning, if there were no worshippers among the people of Kaliõga of those deities at the temples dedicated to them.

Besides the Häthïgumphä inscription, Khäravela's another inscription at Guîûupalli⁵⁷ records the construction of steps by a lady disciple Süyananätha, who was residing in the caves⁵⁸. The Jaina caves of the second century B.C. at Guîûupalli in the East Godävarï District prove that Jainism was very popular during the reign of the Chedis.

Besides there are other inscriptions which prove the popularity of Jainism in Orissa. One inscription⁵⁹ discloses the name of either a predecessor or successor of khäravela viz. Vakadeva and like the former he is called the king of kaliõga and is represented as belonging to the Meghavähana family. This inscription shows that he too was a Jaina.

A few other inscriptions⁶⁰ disclose the existence of a few Jaina devotees. One inscription⁶¹ yields the name of a prince called Vadhuka who too, was a Jaina votary. Some inscriptions⁶² probably represent the gifts of common people.

One inscription⁶³ is the gift of the town-judge. Two inscriptions⁶⁴ are also probably the gifts of important persons. Another inscription records the donation of a servant called Kusuma⁶⁵.

Jainism also made considerable headway in Kaliõga under Mahäräja Kudepasi and Kumära Vadukha who as successors of Khäravela constructed the main wing of the lower storey and a side chamber of Mañchapuri cave respectively⁶⁶.

6.     Muruîâas

After Khäravela, the history of Orissa enters into obscure phase for some centuries, and it is difficult to determine the condition of Jainism during that period. The same is the condition of Jainism in Päûaliputra. It seems that the Muruîâas were ruling over Orissa and Päûaliputra, and they were attracted by Jainism. A gold coin of the Mahäräja Räjädhiräja Dharmadhara of the third century A.D. has been found at Sisupälagarh in course of the excavation, and according to A.S. Altekar⁶⁷, he was probably a king of Muruîâa family who controlled Orissa in the post-Khäravela period. The Muruîâas were said to have been the followers of Jainism. But gradually after Khäravela, Buddhism became popular among the people over there. We know from the Däthä Vaãáa that Guhaáiva (C.400A.D.), the king of Kaliõga, was converted to Buddhism from Jainism and all the Nirgrantha Jainas, being driven out from Kaliõga took shelter in the court of Päîâu of Päûaliputra.

The Muruîâas of Päûaliputra were also influenced by Jainism during this period⁶⁸. The Jaina tradition Bôihatkalpavôitti refers to a Maruîâa king of Päûaliputra who was a pious Jaina whose widowed sister had also embraced the same faith. The Pädalipta Prabandha relates the story as to how Pädalipta cured king Muruîâa of Päûaliputra of his terrible attack.

7.     Tamiladeáa

Viáäkha Muni, the immediate disciple of Bhadrabähu, travelled  further in the South in the Chola and the Päîâya lands and propagated Jainism. The existence of Jainism in the region of Tamiladeáa is attested by the existence of ancient relics such as Jaina rock-cut caves and cavern and lithic records of the third century B.C. found here⁶⁹. One of the rock-shelters at Pugalur (Karür in District Tiruchchirapali in Keral) has two inscriptions of the Second Century A.D. The Jaina sages may have commenced their preaching of the Jaina doctrine in Tamil land in the remote age.

The influence of Jainism is earlier than the infiltration of the Vedic or Brahmanical from the North India. This is suggested by the references to Jainism in the famous Tamil works which belong to the so called Saõ-gham Age (500 B.C. - 500 A.D.), viz Volkäppiyam, Kural Maîimekhali and Áilappadikäram. According to some scholars, the author of Tolkäppiyam was himself a Jaina; that Valluvar, the author of Kural, was likewise a follower of Arhat; that Ilangovaâigal, the author of Maîimekhalaã and the author of Näladiyar were both Jainas. The Kural contains wonderful references to Jainism.

The Jaina teachers like Kuîâakuîâa and Samantabhadra were responsible for the diffusion of Jainism in the South. It seems that the original name of Kuîâakuîâa was Padmanandi, but in course of time this name was pushed into the background and came to be distinguished more prominently on account of his unique personality by characterstic name of the place Kuîâkuîâa which was his domicile.  Kuîâakuîde, identified with Kunakoîâla, is in the Gooty Taluk of the Anandpur District now in Andhra state. Kuîâakuîâa lived in the beginning of the Christian era. He became famous as the founder of the Mülasaãgha.

Samantabhadra, who is known to be the great leader of Jaina religion and thought through his works, lived in the second century A.D. He is known to have gone from place to place for the propagation of Jainism and attracted masses. According to the Áravaîa Belagolä inscription⁷⁰ dated 1050 Áaka era, he beat the drum (literally invited the opponents to refute him) in Päûaliputra, Malwa, Sindh and Ûhakka country (in Punjab), and came to Käñchï in the South and thence to Kaôîäûaka. This statement seems to be based on old traditions.

8.     Jainism In Mathura Region (Sürasena Janapada) (C. 208 B.C. - 200 A.D.)

From the Jaina traditions, it is known that Jainism was prevalent at Mathura, capital of ancient Sürasena-Janapada from very early times. In the beginning, Mathura was governed by the Mitra rulers during the second century B.C. as known from the coins. Afterwards it was  ruled over by the Scythian Chiefs, and then supplanted by the Kushänas. Kanishka was undoubtedly the greatest among the Kushäîa rulers. He came to power in 78 A.D. He ruled over a farflung empire with his capital at Peshawar. His vast empire stretched across the Hindu Kush from Bihar to Khurasan in the West and from Khotan in the Terim valley in the North to Konkan in the South. He was a great patron of art and literature. His rule ended about 101 A.D. He was succeeded by Vasishka who possibly ruled jointly with Huvishka.

Though the latter ruled from his capital Mathura, his rule extended in the North-West over Afghanistan. The last great king of the time in India was Väsudeva. The Kushäîa age is regarded as the golden period in Indian history. The Jaina art specimens are found in larger number in Mathura than Buddhist and Brahmanical. It seems that the Jainas contributed to the prosperity of the Mathura region.

According to Asim Kumar Chatterji, the Therävalï of the Kalpasütra mentioning Áakhäs belong to the third century B.C. but, it seems that they originated much later. They were redacted in cononical literature. The names of these Áakäs are found mentioned in some Jaina inscriptions discovered at Mathura, Ahich-Chhatra etc. in Uttar Pradesh.

The story of Pärávas visit to Mathura is recorded in the Mäyädhammakahäo⁷¹, and that of Mahävïra in the Vipäka Sütra⁷². Regarding the actual introduction of Jainism in the Mthura region, we have a story told in the Paumachariyam of Vimalasüri, a verse text composed about 530  years after the Nirvana of Mahävïra. According to this poem, Jaina religion was introduced in Mathura by the following seven Jaina saints⁷³ Suramantra, Árïtilaka, Árïtilaka, Sarvasundara, Jayamantra, Anilalalita and Jayamitra. The above mentioned seven Jaina saints, we are told, were responsible for the introduction of Jainism not only in Mathura but also in Säketa.⁷⁴ We are informed by Vimala Suri that there was a temple dedicated to Munisuvrata, the 20th Tïrthanõkara at the town of Säketa⁷⁵. Apparently, this temple was built a few centuries before Vimala Suri. It is one of the earliest Jaina tmples of Northern India. The Jaina Rishis went to Mathura from Saketa⁷⁶. Jainism travelled to Mathura from Ayodhyä.

The earliest Jaina inscription from Mathura is of 150 B.C. Jainism got a foothold there by the beginning of the second century B.C. if not earlier. The Jaina canonical writers believe Kosala to be homeland of most of their earlier Jaina Tïrthaõkaras. Some of the seven monks were the teachers of a few Jaina monks mentioned in the inscriptions.

The earliest Jaina inscription⁷⁷ from Mathura has been assigned to the middle of the second century B.C. by Buhler. The same inscription⁷⁸ records dedication of an arch for the temple (Päsädo toraîa) by Sävaka Uttaradäsaka, son of Vachï and disciple of the ascetic Mahärakhita. Chronologically, the next Jaina inscription from Mathura is that which mentions a person calle Gopiputra and his wife Simiträ who belonged to Kauáika gotra⁷⁹. The important expression of this inscription is the epithet 'Pothayaáakakälaväla given to her husband Gopiputra 'black' serpent to the Poûhayas and Áakas. Poûhayas are mentioned along with the Áakas.

Some other Pre-Kushäîa Jaina inscriptions were discovered in Mathura but majority of them are undated. The most important is the  inscription which mentions the Áaka Mahäkshatrapa Áoâäsa⁸⁰, son of Mahäkshatrapa Rañjuvula. Both Rañjuvula and Áoâäsa are mentioned in the well known Mathura Lion capital inscription, and also the Mora well inscription⁸¹ which refers to the Vôishîi heores. Another inscription from Mathura⁸² records the setting up of a shrine (devikula) of the Arhat, a Äyägo Áabhä, a reservoir (Prapä) and stone slabs (Áiläpaûa in the Arhat temple (Arahatäyatana) of the Nigathas (Nirgranthas) by a few courtesans (Gaîikäs). Another pre-Kushäîa inscription⁸³ records the setting up of a tablet of homage by Áivayaáa who has been described as the wife of a dancer called Phaguyaáa. Another inscription⁸⁴ refers to Sihanädiaka, son of Vaîika and Koáikï, set up a tablet of homage (äyägapaûa) for the worship of Arhats.

Pre-Kushäîa record⁸⁵ mentiones a Jaina monk called Jayasena and his female disciple Dharmaghosha. It further records the gift of a temple (Päsäda) by that lady. An inscription⁸⁶ mention a Árävikä called Lahastinï. It records the dedication of an arch. It refers to the setting up of a tablet of homage (äyägapaûa) by one Arhat, the daughter-in-law of Bhadrayaáas and wife of Bhadranandi⁸⁷. The another gift of another äyägapûa recorded in an inscription⁸⁸ by a woman, the wife of one Mäthuraka (inhabitent of Mathura).

The Pre-Kushäîa record mentions Bhagavat Nemesa.⁸⁹ The god nemesa who is sculptured as a goat-headed deity here is Hariîegamesï of the Jaina cononical texts. This god as we learn from the Kalpa Sütra transferred the embryo of Mahävïra from the womb of Devänadä to that of Triáalä.

A good number of dated Jaina inscriptions of the Kushäîa period are found from Mathura. The earliest of such inscriptions is that which is dated in the year four corresponding to 82 A.D. which falls within the reign of the great Kushuaîa king Kanishka. It mentions a monk called Pushyamitra⁹⁰ and for the first time in the Jaina records of Mathura, the Gaîa, Kula and Áäkhä of a particular monk are mentioned. These Gaîas, Kulas and Áäkhäs originated after Bhadrabähu, who was a contemporary of Chandragupta Maurya. According to the present inscription, the monk Pushyamitra belonged to the Väraîa Gaîa, Hälakiya Kula and Vajanagarï-Áäkhä. The particular Áäkhä should be connected with the Vôiji country.

A number of Jaina image inscriptions bearing the date of the year 5 of the reign of Kanishka have been found. There are references to the Gaîa Koûiya and a preacher (Vächaka). It is the most popular Gaîa of Mathura. Majority of the inscriptions found from this region mention this particular Gaîa.

The second inscription⁹¹ of year 5 mentioning Devaputra Kanishka, records the gift of an image of Vardhamäna by a woman, female companion of Sethiniha. The particular monk belonged to Koûiya Gaîa, Bhamadäsika Kula and Uchenägarï Áäkhä. Uchenägarï Áäkhä was named after the fort of Unchanagar (Buland Shahr). The two other inscriptions⁹² of the same date refer to the same Gaîa, Kula and Áäkhä. The next inscription⁹³ is dated in the year 7 and mentions Mahäräjädhiräja Devapäla Áähï Kanishka. The Gaîa also like Koliya and Väraîa originated in the second half of the third century B.C.

One inscription⁹⁴ of the year 9 mentions 'Mahäräja Kanishka. It records the dedication of an image by Vikaûä, Koliya Gaîa, Sthaniya Kula and Vairï Áäkhä. Another image inscription⁹⁵ of the year 12 mentions that how carpenters jointly make a gift of an image. The next Jaina inscription⁹⁶ dated 15 records the dedication of a four-fold (Sarvatobhadrikä) image of Bhagvat by Kumäramitä, wife of Áreshûhin Veni. The inscription⁹⁷ of the 18 year refers to a Sarvatobhadrikä image and also mentions the Koliya Gaîa and Vaachchaliya Kula. Another inscription⁹⁸ yields the name of Arishûanemi, the 22nd Tïrthaõkara. The image inscription⁹⁹ of the year 19 refers to t Tïrthaõkara Áäntinätha. The Koliya Gaîa, Thäîiya Kula and Verï Áäkhä are also mentioned. The two inscriptions¹⁰⁰ of the year 20, first dedicated of an image of Vardhamäna - Koliya Gaîa, Sthäniya Kula, the Verï Áakhä - the second inscription¹⁰¹ Koliya Gaîa, Brahmadasiya Kula and Uchenagarï Áäkhä.

There are two inscriptions of the date 22. The first¹⁰² records the dedication by Dharmasomä, the wife of caravan leader. The second inscription records the dedication of an image of Vardhamäna.¹⁰³ There is an inscription of the year 25.¹⁰⁴ The inscription of the year 28 mentions the king Väsishka, the successor of Kanishka.¹⁰⁵ There are two inscriptions of the year 29. In the first inscription¹⁰⁶, the name of the king Huvishka has been mentioned. Another refers to Mahäräja Devaputra Huvishka.¹⁰⁷

There is an inscription¹⁰⁸ of the year 30. The inscription¹⁰⁹ of the year 32 refers to an unnamed perfumer. The inscription of the year 35 records the dedication of an image of Vardhamäna by the perfumer.

The Jaina elephant inscription¹¹⁰ of the year 38 is of great interest. It mentions Mahäräja Devaputra Huvishka and also records the setting up of elephant Naãdiviáäla by the Áreshûhin Rudradäsa for the Worship of Arhats. The Jaina inscriptions¹¹¹ of the years 40, 44¹¹², 45¹¹³, 47¹¹⁴, 49¹¹⁵, 50¹¹⁶ and 52¹¹⁷, are also concerned with donations.

The image inscription of the year 54 records the dedication of an image of Sarasvatï by the worker in metal¹¹⁸. The next inscription dated 60 mentions Mahäräjä, Räjätiräja Devaputra Huvishka. It records the dedication of an image or Ôishabha¹¹⁹. Two inscriptions¹²⁰ are dated year 62, and the next is dated 74¹²¹. An interesting inscription¹²² of the year 77 records the dedication by one Devila at the temple of Dadhikarîa. The next inscription¹²³ dated 80 mentions Mahäräja Väsudeva.

There are two inscriptions of the year 84. The first inscription¹²⁴ mentions Mahäräja Räjätiräja Devaputra Áähï Väsudeva. It records the setting up of an image of Ôishabha by several women. The second inscription¹²⁵ of the year 84 records the gift of an image of Vardhamäna. There are inscriptions of the years 86¹²⁶, 87¹²⁷, 90¹²⁸ and 93¹²⁹ respectively.

The inscription¹³⁰ of the year 98 refers to rajña Väsudevasya and two monks Kshema and Devadatta who belonged to Udehikiya Gaîa, the Paridhäsika Kula and Petaputrikä Áäkhä.

A certain perfumer (Gandhika) called Varuîa is mentioned. A few inscriptions of the post-Kushäîa period have also been found from the Mathura region.

The Mathura inscriptions of the early period abundantly prove the tremendous popularity of Jainism from the second century B.C. onwards. From the Paumachariyam of Vimalasurï, it is known that Jaina saints preached Jainism both at Säketa and Mathura. These inscriptions of Mathura show that very few among Jaina devotees came from the so-called aristocratic families. No inscription from Mathura yields the name of any Brämaîa patron of Jainism. From the study of the Jaina inscription of Mathura, it is clear that the followers of Jainism were common people. They belonged to the business community.

R.D. Banerji edited an interesting image – inscription¹³¹ which mentions a monk of Adhichchhatra (i.e. Ahich-chhatra) belonging to Petavämika Kula and Väjanagari Áäkhä. It is was taken by him to be an inscription from Rämnagar, ancient Ahich-chhatra. In any case, this inscription certainly proves that Ahichchhatra was not immune from Jaina influence in the Kushäîa period.

A council was summoned at Mathura under the presidentship of Ärya Skandila between the year 827 and 840 after the death of Mahävïra (i.e. 300-313 A.D. and the scriptural texts were brought into order. This is known as the Mathura version (Vächanä) of the Canons. The Jaina canonical writers believe Koáala to be the homeland seuerd of their earlier Tïrthaõkaras.

It seems that the cult of the sculpture of Jaina Tïrthaõkaras originated a century or two after the Nirväva of Mahävïra. However the traditional belief is that images of Trithaõkara Mahavir were made during his own liketime, which are known as Jeevitswam.The Jaina sculptures of these Jaina Tïrthaõkaras in large number were made from the second century B.C. The Nirväîa sites of most of the Jaina Tïrthaõkaras was in Magadha (Bihar) and of birth in Uttar Pradesh because Jainism was prosperous in these two regions during the second and the third century A.D.

Besides Mathura, Ahichchhatra in Pañchäla Janapada, Kauáämbï in Vatsa and Ayodhyä in Koáala became the Centres of Jainism. Not only traditions but even archaeological and epigraphical sources given some idea about the state of Jainism. Jainism made striking progress in Uttar Pradesh during the first and second century A.D.

From the Paumachariyam, it is known that there was a temple of Muni Suvratasvämin at Säketa. That Säketa was connected with Muni suvrata is proved by the evidence of Vividhatïrthakalpa¹³². This temple was probably built much earlier here.

That Pabhosä cave was sacred to the Jaina is proved by the discovery of Jaina images, and carvings from there¹³³. Three standing Jaina images cut in rocks, are also to be found there¹³⁴. There is little doubt that a number of Jaina monks lived in this cave, and most of them were residents of Kauáämbï. This city also yielded a number of Jaina antiquities of the Kushäîa period¹³⁵. It was the birth place of Padamprabha, the sixth Tïrthaõkar. An inscription¹³⁶ of the year 12 of king Áivamitra, which mentions three monks Baladäsa, Áivamitra and Áivapälita. The reference to the Kauáämbikä Áäkhä which has been mentioned in the Therävalï also directly proves the early popularity of Jainism in that region.

Árävastï remained associated with Jainism in very early times. It is said to be the birth place of the third Jaina Tïrthaõkara namely Saãibhavanätha. The Therävalï refers to the Árävastikä Áäkhä which originated during this period. The original temple of Sambhavanätha was probably built probably a few centuries before the birth of Christ. It was in ruins when Fahien visited this city. The ruined temple has yielded a good number of Jaina images including those of Ôishabhanatha, and Mahävïra¹³⁷. The temple of Sambhavaratha at Árävastï was rebuilt several times, and finally it was destroyed during the reign of Alauddïn as we learn from Jinaprabha. That Árävastï afterwards became a famous centre of Digambara religion is evident from the Bôihatkathäkoáa of Harisheîa composed in 791 A.D.

Ahichchhatra (now known as Rämnagar in Bareli District, Uttar  Pradesh), Capital of North Pañchäla, was an important seat of early Jaina religion. A number of Jaina images were unearthed at this site. Ahichchhatra remained sacred to Pärávanätha and there was a shrine dedicated to this Tïrthaõkara at this town. Sïlaõka, who flourished in the second half of the ninth century A.D. in the Ächäraõgavritti¹³⁸, distinctly refers to this shrine. Jinaprabha Süri in his Vividhatïrthakalpa¹³⁹ gives a graphic and beautiful description of the shrine dedicated to Pärávanätha. Áïlaõka informs that Päôáva was worshipped here as Dharaîïndra. But according to Jinaprabha¹⁴⁰, the shrine of Dharaîïîdra was near the original shrine of Päráva. The epigraphic evidence fully supports the Jaina tradition regarding the existence of a shrine dedicated to Päráva at Ahichchhatra. A Kushäîa inscription¹⁴¹ found engraved at the pedestal of an image of Neminätha, bearing the date 50, refers to the shrine of divine Pärávanätha.

A number of Jaina inscriptions of the Kushäîa period have been discovered from this place and at least one of them refers to the city of Ahichchhatra¹⁴². The Kushäîa inscriptions from this city contain the following dates - 9, 18, 31, 44 and 74. Most of the Jaina sculptures from Ahichchhatra belong to the Mathura School of Art. The names of Gaîa, Kula and Áäkhä are usually like those of Mathura. The most common Gaîa is Koliya. The image discovered here are generally nude and they belonged to the Digambara temple of Ahichchhatra.

The Jaina inscriptions from Ahichchhatra disclose the names of the Árävakas and monks. The inscriptions with the years 9 (87 A.D.), 12 (90 A.D.) etc. mention carpenters by caste. All these evidences go far to prove the popularity of Jainism at Ahichchhatra in early days.

Another city Kämpilya was intimately connected with Jainism in pre-Gupta period. This place has been indentified by A. Cunningham¹⁴³ with Kampil in Farukhabad District, Uttar-Pradesh. As known from the traditions contianed in Jaina canonical texts¹⁴⁴, this place was visited by Päráva and Mahävïra. It is believed to be the birth place of the 13th Jaina Tïrthänkara Vimalanätha. It has been mentioned in the Bhagavatï¹⁴⁵ and Aupapätikasütra¹⁴⁶. The fourth Niîhava Äsamitra who flourished 220 years after Mahävïra's death, i.e. in the third century B.C. was associated with this town. The Uttarädhyana¹⁴⁷, old Jaina canonical text, refers to a certain king Sañjaya, who was a Jaina devotee. This place has yielded a few Jaina inscriptions.

Säõkäsya is identiied by A. Cunningham with Saõkissa in Farrukhabad District of Uttara Pradesh. The Therävalï of the Kalpasütra refers to the Saõkhäsiya Áäkhä under Chäraîa Gaîa i.e. Värîa Gaîa established during this period. This definitely proves Sänkäáya early association with Nirgrantha religion.

9.     Avanti, Maharashtra And Saurashtras

After the downfall of the Mauryas, India fell a victim to foreign invasions. The early advent of the Áakas into Western Malwa from Seistan Via Sind and Kathiawad, in the second century B.C is known from the Kaläkächärya Kathänaka. After establishing their hegemony in Sauräshûra Kathiawad, they may have penetrated into Malwa. On the basis of traditions, Rajbai Pandey¹⁴⁸ suggests that there was a ruler named Vikramäditya in Avanti during the first century B.C.  He defeated the Áakas who invaded India for the first time in the first century B.C. In order to commemorate this event, he inaugurated a new ear in 57 B.C. called Vikrama Saãvata. He was a great conqueror as well as a patron of art and literature. On the other hand, D.C. Sircar¹⁴⁹ does not regard Vikramäditya as a historical figure because there is no contemporary evidence for his existence.

It seems that two families Kshataräta and Kärdamakas of the Western Kshatrapas ruled over Western-India as Kshatrapas of Kanishka-I and his successors. Afterwards, they became independent. Nahapäna of the Kshaharäta family became independent, and also conquered some territories. In about 124-125 A.D., he seems to have been defeated by the Sätavähana ruler Gautamïputra Sätakarîi. Chasûana, founder of the Kärdamaka family, established his capital at Ujjain. Chasûana under his grandson Rudradäman defeated the Sätavähana ruler Gautamïputra Sätakarîi and conquered several territories. Sometimes after 130-131 A.D., Rudradäman succeeded to Chasûana as Mahäkshatrapa. From the Junagarh inscription dated 150 A.D., he seems to be a powerful ruler and he claims to have extended his empire by his conquests. These Western Kshatrapa rulers ruled for about three hundred years, till their power was finally crushed by Chandragupta-II.

From the traditions recorded in the Jaina Nibandhas, we know that Jainism was associated with Sauräshûra and Avanti in the first century B.C. The great Jaina saints and scholars like Kälakächärya, lived and propagated Jainism in this area. At this time, it was a living and active religion, and it influenced the life of the people. Some of the Jaina sources¹⁵⁰ claim Vikramäditya as a convert to Jainism. It is claimed that Siddhasena Diväkara, having caused the breaking of the phallic symbol Mahäkäla in Ujjayinï, and the appearance of the image of Pärávanätha, enlightened Vikramäditya. According to the Digambara Jaina Paûûävali¹⁵¹, Vikramäditya played as a child for eight years, for sixteen years, he performed sacrifices following a false doctrine; or forty years, he was devoted to the religion of the Jaina, and then reached heaven. It seems that the ancestral and personal religion of Vikramäditya was Áaivism, but he was also under the influence of Jainism and patronised it. The temple of Avanti Sukumäla was probably in existence at Ujjain during this period.

A short Brähmï inscription found in a cave near Pale in Poona District, Mahäräshtra may be assigned to the first century B.C.¹⁵² This inscription records that a certain Bhadaãta Idarakhita (Indrarakshita), probably together with some others, caused the cave and a cistern to be excavated. The expression Áähä Kähi Saha occurring towards the end of the record is difficult to interpret. The importance of the record lies in the expression 'Namoarahaãtänaã' which commences the writing. It means obeisance to arahaãtas, and it may therefore be taken as Maõgalächaraîa. In no other record of the numerous inscriptions belonging to pre-Christian period from the caves of Western Mahäräshûra, does this expression find a place. This invocation occurs in a definitely Jaina context in this expression. This inscription proves the existence of Jainism in Maharashtra during the first century B.C.

According to Jaina traditions, Nahapäna, after his defeat at the hands of Gautamïputra Sätakarîi at Bhôigukachchha in 66 A.D., became a Jaina monk known as Bhütabali (C. 66-90 A.D.) after abdicating the throne. Though newly initiated, he might have been considered quite capable for the important task of reducting the canon. He was taught by an eminent Guru Dhara-Sena and was guided in his work by his  senior colleague Pushapadanta. He completed the work of Shaûakhaîâägama in C. 75 A.D.¹⁵³

The Junagarh inscription¹⁵⁴ of the grandson of Jayadämana (either Dämayagada or Rudrasiãha-I) belonging to the second century A.D., makes a mention of men who had attained perfect knowledge (Kevalïjñäna), and were free from old age and death (Jarämaraîa). This inscription contains the earliest reference to Jaina monks claiming the attainment of perfect knowledge. This inscription is found in a cave which appears to have been used by the Jaina monks as is indicated by the peculiar Jaina symbols like the Svastika, Bhadräsana, Mïnayugala and others. Of nearly the same date may be the caves found at Dhank in which the sculptures of the Jaina Tirthaõkaras Ôishabha, Päráva, Mahävïra and others have been definitely identified. The Giranar inscription actually refers to the Samädhimaraîa of the Digambara Jaina saint Dharasena, the original author of the Digambara canon, who according to the tradition, resided at Chandraguptä of Girnar-whence the inscription was discovered¹⁵⁵.