Chapter - VI
Historical Role Of
Jainism
Jainism
was dominant in Magadha during the reign of the Nandas (364-324 B.C.) and the
Mauryas (324-300 B.C.). Afterwards, it migrated to the different regions of the
North, South and West, and flourished there. In the Gupta period, Jainism
received no royal patronage, and therefore declined. In the South, Jainism
continued to develop because of the encouragement given by the rulers. The
period from the eighth to the twelfth century A.D. is regarded as the golden
period in the history of Jainism because the Jaina monks, statesmen and
merchants contributed to its development. A large number of people accepted
Jainism, and they formed castes. Numerous temples were built, and images were
installed in them. Jaina scholars enriched the different languages by their
works. Afterwards, Jainism had setbacks during the medieval period, under the
Muslims, but it could not be extinct completely because of devotion of the
Árävakas and saints to Jainism.
1. Jainism Under The
Nandas (364-324 B.C.)
The
Nandas were the most powerful rulers of Magadha. So great was their power that
Alexander, who invaded Punjab at that time, did not dare to move towards the
east. The Nanda ruler Mahäpadma claimed the sole sovereign who destroyed all the
other ruling princes. It seems that he acquired Kaliõga and annexed Kosala to
his kingdom.
Jainism
appears to have been followed during the reign of the Nandas in Magadha. From
the Udayagiri cave inscription1 of
Khäravela, it is known that Nanda king removed the Jaina image from Kaliõga to
Päûaliputra. This throws light on the antiquity of the Jaina sculptural art as
well as the fact that Nanda was the follower of Jainism.
According
to Jaina tradition, the Nanda dynasty as such had a line of Jaina ministers
beginning with Kalpaka2. It was
with the help of this minister that king Nanda uprooted all the reigning
Kshatriya dynasties3, and as
the Jaina tell us, all the ministers of the Nandas were his
descendants4. The
minister of the ninth Nanda was Áakatäla, who had two sons. The elder was
Sthülabhadra and the younger son was called Árïyaka. After the death of
Áakatäla, Nanda offered the minisership to his elder son Sthülabhadra, but the
latter refused and, perceiving the vanity of the world, took Dikshä or joined
the order under Sambhütavijaya5, the
sixth pontiff of the Jaina church. The ministership was finally given to
his brother Árïyaka who was in the king's office6.
That
the Jainas were powerful in the days of the Nandas is also clear from the
Sanskrit play Mudrä Räkshasa, which dramatises the story of
Chandragupta's accession and tells us that the Jainas held a prominent position
at that time, and that Chäîakya who was the prime agent in the revolution,
employs a Jaina as one of the Chief emissaries7
The
Baâali inscription, which G.H. Ojha, records as of the year 84 of
Mahävïra Nirväîa Saãvat, proves the existence of the Jainism at Nagri
even in the fifth century B.C. during the reign of the Nandas8. K.P.
Jayaswal agrees with G.H. Ojha in the reading, but he refers the
year 84 to the Nanda era, which was counted from 458 B.C. and thus the instance
inscription seems to be of the fourth century B.C.9 D.C.
Sircar takes this Baâali
inscription to be of the Second or First century B.C. According to him, this
inscription, incised during the reign of king Bhägavata of the Áuîga
dynasty10, seems
to be a record of the pious working of an inhabitant of Mädhyamikä.
2. Account of the Greek
Writers of Western India
The
Greek writers supply very valuable information about the Indian philosophers
whom Alexander met. Sirabo
mentions two sects of philosophers — one called the Brachmaîes and the
other Germanes.11
Brachmanes represent the Brähmaîas and the Germanes, evidently a
corruption of Sarmanes, which represents the Sanskrit Áramaîa (a Jaina
ascetic). But the question is who these people were. Some say that these are
Buddhist saints, but they seem to be Jaina sanits because they have been
described as naked, and they are called by the name Gymnosophists.
Nakedness is a special characteristic of the Jaina monks. Paliny says that their philosophers
whom they call Gymnosophists, are accustomed to remain in one posture
with their eyes immovably fixed on the Sun from dawn to dusk and to stand on the
burning sands all day long now on one foot and now on the other.1
One Oneslcritus says that these
sages went about naked, inflicted hardships on themselves and were held in
highest honour and when invited, they did not visit any-body but requested the
persons concerned to come to them if they wanted to participate in their
conversation.12 This
description applies to Digambara Jaina monks.
The
Greek observers found women studying philosophy along with men. But they all led
a life of extreme austerity.2
And as the Brähmaîas did not generally admit their women to their philosophy,
these women must have been, therefore, probably, the Sädhvis of the Jaina
church.
Among
these sages, one Kälnos who accompanied Alexander probably to instruct him in
the matters of religion. His real name, according to Plutarch, was Sphines; and he received
the name Kälnos among the Greeks because in saluting the persons, he used the
word 'Käle'. It is probably the Sanskrit from Kalyäîa which is
commonly used in addressing a person and signifies good, just or distinguished.
When he became ill at Pasargadi, this being the first sickness he ever had, he
put an end to his life in his seventy third year without heeding the entreaties
of the king.13 This
type of voluntary death is specially found among the Jainas. The
Ratnakaraîda Árävakächära (Chap. 5) of Samantabhadra (about second
century A.D.) dilates on sallekhanä which consists in abandoning the body
for the accumulation of merit in calamities, famines, extreme old age and
incurable diseases.
The
Indian sages, according to the Greek writers, have been divided into two
categories (1) the Brähmaîas and (2) Áramaîas. The Brähmaîas succeeded by right
of birth to this kind of divine wisdom as to a priesthood. They are one family,
the descendents of one father and mother. The Áramaîas, on the other hand, are
taken from all Indian castes differently from all who wish to give themselves to
the study of divine beings.14 These
saints were probably Jaina saints, because there was no question of caste
restriction in Jainism.
These
naked Samnoi practise truth, make predictions about futurity and worship
a kind of pyramid beneath which they think the bones of some divinity lie
buried.15 This
practice is also noticed among the Jainas who used to construct the
Stüpas, specimens of which are found at Mathura.
According
to the Greek writers, the society was divided into the five classes in
accordance with the occupations. Some cultivate the soil; very many follow war
and other trades. The noblest and richest manage public affairs, administer
justice and sit in the council with the kings. A fifth class devotes itself to
the philosophy prevalent in the country which almost assumes the form of
religion and the members always put an end to their lives by burning themselves
on funeral pile.16
The
characteristics and practices of these saints indicate that they were Jaina
saints. Jainism was prevalent in western India on the eve of the coming of the
Greeks in India. The Jaina monks and nuns were found in such a large number that
they caught the attention of the foreigners. If it is in the border provinces,
it may have been in existence even in the adjacent region like Rajasthan.
3. Jainism Under The
Mauryas (324-187 B.C.)
Chandragupta (324-300 B.C.)
The
Maurya was founded by Chandragupta Maurya, who seems to have belonged to some
ordinary family. He is one of the greatest emperors of India. He is first Indian
ruler to bring about the unification of Northern India by his conquests and to
rule over such a vast empire. From him actually, a continuous as well as unified
history starts and he is, therefore, regarded as the first historical emperor.
He is the earliest emperor in Indian history whose historicity can be
established on the solid ground of ascertained chronology.We can locate him
accurately in both time and space. With the help of Chäîakya known as Kauûilya,
he overthrew the Nandas and established the rule of the Mauryas. He liberated
North-Western India from the rule of Selecus, the Greek Viceroy of Alexander. He
extended his empire by further conquests of Saurarhûra and some regions of South
India.
There
are Jaina traditions regarding Chandragupta's association with the South. His
conquest of some regions of the South India is also attested by the inscriptions
of Aáoka found at some sites. He established an efficient administration as
known from the Arthaáätra of Kauûilya and the Megasthaness Indica
edited by Mcerindle.
Jain
tradition avers that Chandragupat Maurya was a Jain. Both Tiloyapaîîati
(600 A.D.) and Räjavalïkathä claim him to be Jain. Jainism was
prevalent in his reign. The Jaina monks were frequently seen and mentioned
within the empire of Chandragupta not only by Indians, but by Greek historians
as well, Megasthenese, the Greek envoy to Chandragupta's court, mentions of
Áramaîas in his empire. He also says that Chandragupta submitted to
devotional teaching of the Áramaîas as opposed to the doctrines of the
Brähmaîas.17
It
seems that Chandragupta was quite young and experienced when ascended the throne
in or about 324 B.C. He must have been under fifty when his reign terminated
twenty-four years later. When king Chandragupta Maurya was ruling over North
India (either from Ujjain or from Päûaliputra), a great twelve years' famine was
foretold in Northern India by the Árutakevalin Bhadrabähu. He was at this time a
great sanit of Jainism. When this prophecy began to be fulfilled, the saint led
twelve thousand Jainas to the South and settled at Áravaîa Belagolä. At this
time, Chandragupta abdicated the throne and accompanied his teacher Bhadrabähu.
Bhadrabäu soon died, and Chandragupta survived after him for twelve years, and
died in Sallekhanä.
Such
famines are possible during this period as known from some very early
inscriptions.The Mahasthäna stone plaque inscription18
found in the Bogra District of Bengal records an endowment to the
Pañchavargïya Buddhist monks. The Sohgaura copper-plate inscription19 found
in the Gorakhpur District of U.P. records a provision of grains and fodders
during famines.
The
tradition of migration of the great Árutakeval in Bhadrabähu and his disciple,
the Mauryan emperor Chandragupta due to famine in the South is corroborated by
the late literary and epigraphic evidences. Besides, there are the names of
monuments at Áravaîabelagola in the memory of Bhadrabähu and Chandragupta
Maurya. The Bôihatkathäkoáa of Harisena dated 931 A.D. Ratnanandi's
Bhadrabähu Charita of about 1450 A.D., the Kannaâa works
Munivaãáäbhudaya of C. 1680 A.D. and the Räjavalïyakathä mention
this incident. Several inscriptions20 of
Áravaîabelagolä refer to this tradition also. The oldest of these inscriptions
is of about 600 A.D. Two inscriptions of about 900 A.D. describe the hill at
Áravaîabelagolä as having its summit marked by the impress of the feet of
Bhandrabähu and Munipati Chandragupta. Two inscripations of the year 1128
and 1169 A.D. are engraved with the names of Bhadrabähu Árutakevalin and
Chandragupta. Another inscription of the year 1433 A.D. speaks of Yatindra
Bhadrabähu and his disciple Chandragupta. All these agree to the main facts
of breaking out famine in Bihar and migration of Jainas towards the South after
the death of Bhadrabähu and Chandragupta at Chandragiri hill in the fourth
Century B.C. The smaller hill Chandragiri is said to have derived its
affiliation from the fact that Chandragupta was the first of the saints who
lived and performed penance there. On the same hill is a cave named after
Bhadrabähu and also a shrine called Chandragupta Basti, as it was erected
by Chandragupta.
Both
Rice Lewis21 Narasimhachar22 who
have studied the Jaina inscriptions of Áravaîa Belagolä thoroughly, give a
verdict in favour of Jaina tradition. According to both these scholars, credence
may be given to the late traditions of migration of the Jainas to the South
under the leadership of Árutakevalï Bhadrabähu and his royal disciple
Chandragupta Maurya. This tradition also forms one of the links connected with
the Digambara—Ávetambara Schism in the Jainas Saãgha. This tradition also shows
that Chandragupta Maurya was a Jaina. Edward Thomas23, who
has taken into consideration, the Greek accounts comes to the same opinion.
Hoernle24 also
accepts the immigration of Árutakevalï Bhadrabähu to the South.
On
the other hand, J.F.
fleet25 And J. Charapentier26 tried
to maintain that this Jaina tradition had no historical basis. According to
J.F. Fleet, the name Bhadrabähu
of the two Ächäryas is found mentioned in the Digambara
Paûûävalïs—one the last Árutakevalï Bhadrabähu and the other
Bhadrabähu from which the Paûûävalï of Nandi Ämnäya of the
Sarasvatï Gachchha. His disciple was Guptigupta. According to J.F. Fleet's view, the saint who
migrated to the South was Bhadrabähu, and Chandragupta was another name of
Guptigupta. J.f. Fleet's
contention is wrong. There is no evidence to assume Guptigupta and Chandragupta
as one. There is no reference to famine of twelve years during this time. He is
not known to be initiated to monkhood after abdication of the throne.
J. Charpentier discredits the account
of the Digambaras and asserts that Bhadrabähu retired to Nepal in order to pass
the reminder of his life in penance, leaving the succession to Sthülabhadra, a
disciple of Bhadrabähu's own contemporary monk, Sambhütavijaya.
Some
of the modern Scholars of great reputes and authority have come to the
conclusion that Chandragupta can safely be called a Jaina on the Authority of
this tradition. The Jaina books (fifth century A.D.) and later Jaina
inscriptions, observe K.P.
Jayaswal27,
"claim Chandragupta as a Jaina imperial ascetic. My studies have compelled me to
respect the historical data of the Jaina writings, and I see no reason why we
should not accept the Jaina claim that Chandragupta at the end of his reign
accepted Jainism and abdicated and died as a Jaina ascetic."
To
quote V.A. Smith28, who
has ultimately leaned towards Jainism. "The only direct evidence throwing light
on the manner in which the eventful reign of chandragupat Maurya came to an end
is that of Jaina tradition. The
Jainas always treat that great emperor as having been a Jaina, and no adequate
reason seems to discredit their belief." Besides this, H. Jacobi29 tells
us, 'The date of Bhadrabähu's death is placed indentically by all Jaina authors
from Hemachandra down to the most modern Scholiast in the year 170 A.V. And
this, according to our caluclation, falls in about 291 B.C. This date of the
great pontiff's Nirväîa exactly coincides with that of Chandragupta, who
reigned from 321-297 B.C. Early evidence or evidences for Chandragupta Maurya
being a Jaina might have disappeared, but still there are persistent late
literary as well epigraphical traditions to prove him Jaina.
Chandragupta
Maurya is known to have performed the consecration ceremony of the images and
temples. In a village of Ghänghäîï, at a distance of twenty seven Km. frm
Jodhpur in Rajasthan, there is an old temple of Pärávanätha. In V.S. 1662, many
images were discovered in the tank of this place. By chance, the poet
Sundaragaîi went on pilgrimage to this place and saw the inscription on the
image and examined it. He is said to have read the inscription by the miraculous
power given to him by the goddess Ambikä. He immediately composed the
poem on it. According to it, Samräû Chandragupta made the golden image of
Pärávanätha and its pratishthä was probably performed through
Áruti-Kevalï Bhadrabähu.30 This
evidence is of a very late period and so there is much doubt about its
correctness.
The
Jainas legends tell that all the monks did not migrate from Magadha to the South
and some preferred to remain in their old land. Apprehending the danger that
could threaten the loss and distortion of the original teachings of Mahävïra
Sthülabhadra, who according to Ávetambara tradition, assumed the leadership of
the Saãgha in Magadha, summoned a council of Jaina Munis in 307 B.C. for
the compilation of the teachings of Mahävïra which were preserved in the
Pürvas. Thus, the sacred lore which was in a state of decay, was put in
order. The Päûaliputra Council is referred to in the Ävaáyakachürîi of
Jinadäsagaîi who flourished in the Second half of the seventh century A.D., and
by Haribhadra who lived in the middle of the eight century A.D.
BindusÄra (C. 300-273
B.C.)
Chandragupta
Maurya was succeeded by Bindusära, whose reign is important for continued links
with the Greek princes. Bindusära followed the faith of his parents. The Jaina
tents style him as a Jaina and entitle him as 'Siãhasena'.
Aáoka (C.273-236
B.C.)
Bindusära
was succeeded by his son Aáoka. After his accession to the throne, Aáoka fought
only one major war called the Kaliõga-War. Seeing the cruelty of the war, he
adopted Buddhism. Though he professed Buddhism he preached 'Dhamma' based
on ehthics but not religious dogmas. He is regarded as one of the greatest
figures in history. H.G. Wells in
the Outline of History describes him as 'the greatest of Kings' because
he tried not only for the material but also spiritual welfare of the people.
It
seems that in the beginning, Aáoka followed Jainism, the religion of his
ancestors. The Siãhalese tradition says that during the life time of his father,
when Aáoka was Viceroy of Ujjain, he developed affairs with a girl of a
Áreshûhin named Devï who resided at Vidiáä and whom he married. It is
possible that Devi belonged to some Jaina family.
It
seems that even after Aáoka became Buddhist, he was more or less inclined
towards Jainism. The use of the term 'Äsinava', distinction between it
and Päpa and the inclusion of the passions of the Jaina lists—violence,
cruelty, anger, conceit and envy are enough to convince any body that in all
likelihood, Aáoka has adopted and assimilated some psychological concepts of
Jainism.
There
are several definite evidences to prove that Aáoka was influenced by Jainism. He
emphasised on 'non-slaughter of animate beings and non-injury to creatures in
Pillar Edict-V. In Rock Edict-I, he mentions that many hundred of living beings
were formerly slaughtered every day in the kitchen of Priyadaráï, but now only
three living creatures were killed daily for the sake of curry. Even this animal
is not slaughtered regularly. These three living beings shall not be killed in
future. The Pillar Edict VII mentions Nirgranûhas known as Jaina
Árävakas. Dharmamahämätras appointed for the propagation of
Dhamma by Aáoka were also recruited from the Nirgranthas and the
Áramaîas.
Samprati
When
Kuîäla lost his claim to the throne of Magadha on account of his blindness, his
son Samprati was declared as the rightful successor by Aáoka. Recently, the
historicity of Samprati has been proved because Samprati Vihära after the name
of Samprati was existing at Vadamänu in the Krishna-Valley during the second
century A.D.31 Under
the influence of Suhastin, the leading saint of the Jaina Commuinty under
Mahägiri, Smprati was converted to Jainism. He tried to spread Jainism by every
means in his power, working as hard for Jainism as Aáhoka had done for Buddhism.
He is therefore regarded as a Jaina Aáoka. According to Jaina scriptures, he had
decided to rinse his mouth in the moring, only after hearing the news of a new
temple having been built. Besides, he got all the old and existing temples
repaired and set up into all of them the idols mode of gold, stone, silver,
brass and of a mixture of fine metals and performed their 'Añjanaáaläkä Ceremony
i.e. declared them fit for worship. Within three years and a half, he got one
hundred and twenty-five thousand new temples built, thirty-six thousand
repaired, twelve and a half millions of idols consecrated and ninety-five
thousand metal idols prepared.32
Samprati
is said to have erected Jaina temples throughout within his empire. He founded
Jaina monasteries even in the non-Aryan countries, and almost all ancient Jaina
temples or monuments of unknown origin are ascribed by the popular voice to
Samprati. It may also be noted that all the Jaina monuments of Rajasthan and
Gujrat, whose builder is not known, are attributed to Samprati33.
Tod34
attributes an old temple at Kumbhalmera to Samprati. At Nadlai, there is a Jaina
temple dedicated to Ädinätha. On the seat of the image is engraved an
inscription dated V.S. 1686 which speaks of its being rebuilt by the whole Jaina
Community of Nadalai. The temple was originally erected by Samprati35. In
the Seventeenth century A.D., Jainas at Nadalai believed that the temple was
built by Samprati; so there was an old tradition to this effect. He is said to
have celebrated the installation ceremony of the image of Padmaprabha at a place
named Gharighäîï, through Ärya Suhasti in V.N.S.-20336.
Samprati
is known to have propagated Jainism not only in his kingdom but also in adjacent
countries. He sent out missionaries as far as South India to preach Jainism in
peninsula where his creed secured widespread popularity and made the regions of
Andhra, Dravida, Mahäräshûra and Coorg safe for Jaina monks. According to
literary tradition, Salisuka, brother of Samprati Maurya, contributed to the
spread of Jainism in Kathiawad. Besides this, Samprati took other steps for the
propagation of Jainism. From the Jaina books, it is known that he started
Saãgha from Ujjain to Áatruñjaya in the company of Suhasti with five
thousand Áramaîas. He is also said to have convoked a council for the
propagation of Jaina religion under Suhasti.
This
account for the propagation of Jainism by Samprati seems to be hyperbolic but
there seems to be some truth in it. The recent excavations37 in the
Krishna valley conducted at a Vaddamanu identified with the ancient Place
Vardhamäna named after the last Jaina Tïrthaõkara yielded the Jaina remains such
as Stüpas, ellipsoidal structures, stone sculptures on pillars, slabs and
toraîas confirm the activities of Samprati for the propagation of
Jainism. The inscriptions inscribed on potsherds reveal the names of
Tïrthaõkaras Vôishabhanätha, Vardhamäna, Aranätha etc. These remains seem to
have belonged to the Suõga-Sätavähana period. The names of important Jaina
preceptors and their disciples with the details of Gaîas, Gotras
and Áäkhäs are found engraved on pottery pieces. The names such as
Samprativihära and Jinonavihära are found inscribed. These
inscriptions give reference to female devotees. The pillara, Süchïs
(cross slabs), Ushaîishas (coping slabs) and the Toraîa contained
a variety of religions symbols like Stüpas, Aharmachakra,
Ratnatriya, Nandipada, Kevalavôiksha, Svastika and
so on.
The
remains of the foundation of the oldest Jaina temple have been discovered at
Lohänipura, near Patha. Two torsos of the Jaina image were also found at Patna.
This proves that Jaina temple and images were worshipped during the Maurya
period, in Magadha.
'Nigaûasa
Vihära Dipa' inscribed on one of the pot sherds found at Kasrawad38 proves
the existence of the Jaina monastery. It means that the lamp from Nigaûa's
monastery was used for lighting the rooms. This monastery may be attributed to
the Maurya period.
When
Ärya Suhastin visited Ujjain in order to worship the image of Jïvanta Svämï,
Avanti Sukumäla took the vocation of monkhood from him39. After
the death of Avanti Sukumäla, a Stüpa was erected in order to commemorate
him and the image of Pärávanätha was installed in it. After some time, the
Stüpa became barren, and it was known by the name of Kuâugeávara (God of
the Great Forest).
Being
a holy place, Ujjain was frequently visited by Jaina saints such as Chaîâarudra,
Bhadrakagupta, Äryarakshita and Ärya Äshäâha40. Vajra
dwelt at Tumba-vanagräma (Tumain).
After
Siãhagiri had taught him the even Aõgas, Vajrasvämi went from Daáapara to
Bhadragupta at Avanti (Ujjayini) to learn the twelfth viz. the
Dôishûivädaõga. He was the last who knew the complete ten Pürvas,
and from him arose the Vajraáäkhä41.
Daáapura (Mandsor) is the birth place of the Jaina Saint Äryarkshit who learned
from Vajra Svämi nine Pürvas, and a fragment of the tenth, and taught
them to his pupil Durbalikäpushpamitra42. The
seventh schism in Jainism occurred at this place. Jaina traditions aver that
Vajr Svämï and other Jaina pontiffs, obtained liberation in the hills
Kunjarävarta and Rathävarta in the neighbourhood of Vidiáä, now known as
Bhilsa43.
4. Jainism Under The Áuõgas (187-75
B.C)
Pushyamitra (C. 187-151 B.C.)
Bôihadratha,
the last Maurya Emperor, was murdered in the presence of the army by the
Brähmaîa Commander-in-Chief Pushyamitra who became the founder of the Áuõga
dynasty. The first event of his reign was his confilict with Vidarbha. He had
also to face the Greek invasion of Indo-Bactrian rulers Demetrious and Menander.
He performed two horse sacrifices. According to the Divyävadäna he was a
persecutor of Buddhism. Pushyamitra was succeeded by his son Agnimitra who had
the exprience of governing Vidiáä as Viceroy under his father. Agnimitra's son
Vasumitra in his earlier days defeated the Yavanas. The Indo-Greek king
Antialkidas of Taxila sent his ambassador Heliodorus, son of Dion (Diya) to the
court of the Áuõga ruler Bhägavata or Käáïputra Bhägabhedra. The Käîvas, also
Brähmaîas seized power about seventy-two B.C.
Generally,
a very common charge has been levelled against the Áuõga king Pushyamitra that
he was a staunch Brähmaîa and caused the death of Buddhist and Jaina monks. This
assumption is based on the version of the Buddhist text
Divyävadäna44 which
says that he put the price of one hundred dinäras for the head of single
monk. This account of Pushyamitra's vendetta against the monks seems to be
exaggerated because a similar vengeance against the Äjivikas and Nirgranthas is
attributed to Pushyamitra in the same tent, where it is stated that he put the
price of one dinär for the head of Nirgrantha. He is said to be
responsible for destroying monasteries and monks from Magadha to Jullandhara
area in the modern Punjab. Täränätha also affirms that Pushyamitra was the ally
of unbelievers and himself burnt monasteries and slew monks.
But
the above charges for the prosecution of the Buddhists and the Jainas against
Pushyamitra Áuõga do not seem to be correct. In fact, the Brähmaîas did not
interfere with the Áramaîa religions—Buddhism and Jainism. Neither Buddhism nor
Jainism had eclipsed, for some magnificent Buddhist and Jaina monuments were
erected in the kingdom of the Áuõgas. Therefore it can be concluded that the
Divyävadäna, no doubt, gives a shortsighted view. The Buddhist monuments
of Bharhut and Sanchi erected during the sovereignty of the Áuõgas do not bear
out the theory that Áuõgas were the leaders of a militant Brähmanism. The causes
of persecutions against Buddhism and Jainism by Pushyamitra may be owing to the
personal and potitical reasons.
That
the Jainas were holding good position in Uttar-Pradesh is also evident from two
inscriptions45 of the
second century B.C. recovered from Pabhosä near Kauáämbï which are of much
historical importance.
No.1
By Äsäâhasena, the son of Gopälï Vaihidarï (i.e. Vaihidara-princess, and
maternal uncle of king Bahasatimitra), son of Gopälï, a cave was caused to be
made in the tenth year of---- of the Kaááapïya Arhats.
No.2.
Caused to be made by Äshäâhasena, son of the Vaihidara (Vaihidara-princess, and)
son of king Bhägavata, son of the Tevani (i.e. Traivarîa-Princess, and) son of
king Vaãgapäla, son of Áonakäyana (Saunakäyana of Adhichchhatra).
These
two inscriptions of the second or first century B.C. are of historical value
because they give the pedigree of the early kings of Adhichchhatra, the capital
of the once mighty kingdom of Northern Pañchäla. These inscriptions record their
dedication by Ashäâhasena from Ahichchhatra for the use of Kasyapïya Arhats. On
the basis of these inscriptions, it can be said that the Jaina monks enjoyed
royal patronage during the Áuõga period.
Spread
of Jainism
Starting
from its original home in Magadha, Jainism had slowly spread to different
countries like Kaliñga to the South-east, Mathura and Malva to the West and
Deccan and the Tamil lands to South. At the same time, it appears to have lost
its hold over Magadha, the land of its origin and grew powerful in the West and
the South. After some initial success in winning over royal patronage, which
was, in part the cause of its rapid growth and expansion, it soon lost its hold
in the North, but retained the support of the middle classes, like merchants and
bankers, for a long time. This loss of kingly support in the North, was,
however, made good by the favour shown to the religion by some ruling families
of the Deccan. By the end of the third century A.D., Jainism had taken firm
roots throughout India.
5. The Chedi
(Mahä-Meghavähana) Dynasty of Kaliñga (Orissa)
The
realy migration of the Jainas to the country of Kaliõga can be seen from the
famous Khäravela inscription of Udayagiri dated second or first century B.C. As
this inscription refers this to the removal of a Jaina image from kaliõga to
Päûaliputra by the Magadhan king Nanda, it is proved that Jainism was followed
in the fourth century B.C. Here the faith took firm root and flourished for a
long period.
The
Udayagiri cave inscription of Khäravela may be regarded as the 'Khäravela
Charita' because it gives information about the events of his life. He
belonged to the third generation of the Mahämeghavähana dynasty, and he was an
offshoot of the Chedi royal family. He is also knwon to be a descendant of the
Aila line. Mahäräja Khäravela is one of the most remarkable figures of
ancient Indian History. As this inscription starts with the invocation
(Mangalä Charaîa-Namo Arahantänam and Namo-Sava
Siddhänam, Khäravela, the Chedi ruler, is proved to be the follower of
Jainism.
It
is possible to determine the date of Khäravela by properly identifying the
contemporary rulers of Khäravela mentioned46 in
this inscription. K.P. Jayaswal
and R.D. Banerji are inclined to
assign him to the first half of the second century B.C. while other scholars
like D.C. Sircar47 place
him in the first century B.C. or first century A.D. His title Mahäräja,
later script of the inscription, developed Kävya style and sculptures of
Mañchapuri prove the late date. The Nanda king is known to have excavated the
canal three centuries earlier than Khäravela. As the Nandas held sway over the
Magadhan empire in the fourth century B.C., Khäravela, who flourished more than
300 years after Nandaräja, should be assigned to the first century B.C.
Khäravela,
while a prince, played different games befitting the young age of the prince
with a lovely body and fair brown complexion. He bore the noble and auspicious
bodily marks. As to prince Khäravela's education ability, he became an expert in
matters relating to writing, coinage, accounting, administration and
procedures.
That
Khäravela did marry is beyond any dispute. The very fact that the Mañchapuri
cave on the Udayagiri Khaîâagiri was dedicated by the chief queen
(Agra-Mahïshi) of Khäravela for the use of Jaina monks in Kaliõga, goes
to prove that Khäravela had more than one queen. Again in the seventh year
record in the Hathigumpha text, there appears a fragmentary reference to
Khäravela's wife. In the seventh year of his reign, Khäravela's famous wife of
the Vajiraghara obtained the dignity of auspicious motherhood48.
He
married a daughter of the greatgrandson of King Hastisiãha, probably of the
Laläka lineage.49
Immediately
after his accession to the throne, Khäravela launched on a career of a
dia-vijaya (conqueror)50. In
the second year of his reign, he is said to have sent a large army to the
Western countries without even thinking of Sätakraîi who apparently ruled the
country to the West of Kaliõga. In the course of his expedition, the Kaliõga
army is further said to have reached the banks of the Kôishîä bena (Kôishîä)
where the city called Rishika-nagara was threatened. As there is no indication
that Khäravela's army came into conflict with Sätakarîi or that Rishika-nagara
formed a part of the latter's dominions, the Kaliõga king's calim seems to
suggest that friendly relations existed between the two kings and that the
Kaliõga army passed to the Ôishika country on the Krishîä through Sätakarîi's
territories without difficulty. But a suggestion that Khäravela's army attacked
a city on the Krishnä in the Southern part of Sätakarîi's kingdom cannot also be
regarded as altogether impossible. King Sätakarîi seems to be no other than an
early Sätavähana ruler of that name, very probably Sätakarîi I who is known from
the Nänäghäûa inscription of Näganikä. In the fourth year of his reign,
Khäravela seems to have occupied the capital of a prince named Vidyädhara. In
the Jaina literature, the Vidyädharas are known as a tribal people residing in
the Vindhya mountain51.
In
the same year, Khäravela also subdued the Räshûrikas and Bhojakas. The
Räshûrikas stand for the Maräûhä region, and the Bhojakas probably for the Berar
(M.P.) region. In the eighth year, Khäravela destroyed Goradhagiri, a hill
fortress in Baräbar hills and attacked the city of Rajagôiha (modern Rajgir in
the Gaya District, Bihar)52. The
news of these exploits of Khäravela caused so much terror in the heart of Yavana
king that he fled away to Mathura. The Yavana ruler whose name is sometimes
doubtfully read as Dimitra or Dimata (Demetrius), was probably a later
Indo-Greek ruler of the eastern Punjab. It is possible that this contemporary
ruler of Mathura of Khäravela was not Yavana ruler Demetrius but a ruler of the
Mitra dynasty.
In
his eleventh year, Khäravela destroyed the city of Pithuâa, the capital of a
king of the Masulipatam region in the Tamilanadu area. Pithuâa53 is
probably a coastal city situated somewhere in the South of the Kaliõga country.
He threatened the rulers of Uttarapätha (probably North-Western India) in the
next year, and also defeated the king of the Magadha people, probably on the
banks of the Gangä. The name of the Magadha king is given in Prakrit as
Bahasatimita which seems to stand for Sanskrit Bôihatsvätimitra rather than for
Bôihaspatimitra as is usually supposed Bôihatsvätimitra, a contempory of
Khäravela, seems to be the king of that name mentioned as the sister's son of
Äshäâhasena of the Pabhosä inscriptions54 and as
the father of the queen of a Mathura king referred to the Mora inscription. He
seems to have been related to the Mitra kings of Magadha whose records and coins have been found in the Gaya
District. To avenge the humiliation of Kaliõga during the time of the Nandas and
the Mauryas, Khäravela carried away much booty from Aõga and Magadha together
with certain Jaina images originally taken away by a Nanda king from Kaliñga. In
the same year, Khäravela also defeated the Päîâya king of the Far South.
As
regards the extent of Khäravela's empire, it included Udra, Utkala and Kaliõga.
These regions were under his suzerainty, and were directly ruled. His capital
was Kaliõganagara which may be identified with Mukhaliõgam or Tosali or
Sisupägarh.55
As
a ruler, Khäravela thought of the welfare of the subjects and spent large sums
of money on their account. Himself a Past-master of music, he often entertained
the people by arranging dancing and musical performances as well as festivities
and many gatherings. He enlarged an irrigation canal originally excavated by a
Nanda king three centuries ago. He ws also a great builder. On one occasion, the
capital city of Kaliõga was devastated by stormy wind and the king had to
rebuild numerous gates, walls and houses that had been damaged and to restore
all the gardens. He built a magnificent place called called the Mahävijaya
Prasäda.
Khäravela
was a zealous patron of Jainism and he sent missionaries for its propagation. He
convened a conference of learned Jainas on the Kumäiï Hill and consolidated
the Aõgas or sacred tents of Jainism. As a devout Jaina, he excavated a
number of caves in Kumärï hill to provide resident Arhats with accommodation and
shelters for resting their bodies. He also constructed caves for the honoured
recluses of established reputation as well as for Yatis, hermits and
sages, hailing from a hundred directions. He also set up many pillars and shrine
posts. Besides, the inscription of the chief wife of Khäravela records a
dedication of cave in honour of Arahanta for the use of Jaina monks56.
Though
Khäravela was a Jaina, he was like Aáoka tolerant in the matters of religion.
The royal epithet Savapäsaîâa Püjaka' (worshipper of all religious) attests
beyond doubt that Khäravela observed the principle of religious, toleration.
Similarly, the epithet 'Savadeväyatana Saãkära Käraka' (the repairer of
all temples of the deities) has no meaning, if there were no worshippers among
the people of Kaliõga of those deities at the temples dedicated to them.
Besides
the Häthïgumphä inscription, Khäravela's another inscription at
Guîûupalli57
records the construction of steps by a lady disciple Süyananätha, who was
residing in the caves58. The
Jaina caves of the second century B.C. at Guîûupalli in the East Godävarï
District prove that Jainism was very popular during the reign of the Chedis.
Besides
there are other inscriptions which prove the popularity of Jainism in Orissa.
One inscription59
discloses the name of either a predecessor or successor of khäravela viz.
Vakadeva and like the former he is called the king of kaliõga and is represented
as belonging to the Meghavähana family. This inscription shows that he too was a
Jaina.
A
few other inscriptions60
disclose the existence of a few Jaina devotees. One inscription61 yields
the name of a prince called Vadhuka who too, was a Jaina votary. Some
inscriptions62
probably represent the gifts of common people.
One
inscription63 is the
gift of the town-judge. Two inscriptions64 are
also probably the gifts of important persons. Another inscription records the
donation of a servant called Kusuma65.
Jainism
also made considerable headway in Kaliõga under Mahäräja Kudepasi and
Kumära Vadukha who as successors of Khäravela constructed the main wing
of the lower storey and a side chamber of Mañchapuri cave respectively66.
6.
Muruîâas
After
Khäravela, the history of Orissa enters into obscure phase for some centuries,
and it is difficult to determine the condition of Jainism during that period.
The same is the condition of Jainism in Päûaliputra. It seems that the Muruîâas
were ruling over Orissa and Päûaliputra, and they were attracted by Jainism. A
gold coin of the Mahäräja Räjädhiräja Dharmadhara of the third century
A.D. has been found at Sisupälagarh in course of the excavation, and according
to A.S. Altekar67, he
was probably a king of Muruîâa family who controlled Orissa in the
post-Khäravela period. The Muruîâas were said to have been the followers of
Jainism. But gradually after Khäravela, Buddhism became popular among the people
over there. We know from the Däthä Vaãáa that Guhaáiva (C.400A.D.), the
king of Kaliõga, was converted to Buddhism from Jainism and all the Nirgrantha
Jainas, being driven out from Kaliõga took shelter in the court of Päîâu of
Päûaliputra.
The
Muruîâas of Päûaliputra were also influenced by Jainism during this
period68. The
Jaina tradition Bôihatkalpavôitti refers to a Maruîâa king of Päûaliputra
who was a pious Jaina whose widowed sister had also embraced the same faith. The
Pädalipta Prabandha relates the story as to how Pädalipta cured king
Muruîâa of Päûaliputra of his terrible attack.
7. Tamiladeáa
Viáäkha
Muni, the immediate disciple of Bhadrabähu, travelled further in the South in the Chola and
the Päîâya lands and propagated Jainism. The existence of Jainism in the region
of Tamiladeáa is attested by the existence of ancient relics such as Jaina
rock-cut caves and cavern and lithic records of the third century B.C. found
here69. One
of the rock-shelters at Pugalur (Karür in District Tiruchchirapali in Keral) has
two inscriptions of the Second Century A.D. The Jaina sages may have commenced
their preaching of the Jaina doctrine in Tamil land in the remote age.
The
influence of Jainism is earlier than the infiltration of the Vedic or
Brahmanical from the North India. This is suggested by the references to Jainism
in the famous Tamil works which belong to the so called Saõ-gham Age (500 B.C. -
500 A.D.), viz Volkäppiyam, Kural Maîimekhali and
Áilappadikäram. According to some scholars, the author of
Tolkäppiyam was himself a Jaina; that Valluvar, the author of
Kural, was likewise a follower of Arhat; that Ilangovaâigal, the author
of Maîimekhalaã and the author of Näladiyar were both Jainas. The Kural
contains wonderful references to Jainism.
The
Jaina teachers like Kuîâakuîâa and Samantabhadra were responsible for the
diffusion of Jainism in the South. It seems that the original name of Kuîâakuîâa
was Padmanandi, but in course of time this name was pushed into the background
and came to be distinguished more prominently on account of his unique
personality by characterstic name of the place Kuîâkuîâa which was his
domicile. Kuîâakuîde, identified
with Kunakoîâla, is in the Gooty Taluk of the Anandpur District now in
Andhra state. Kuîâakuîâa lived in the beginning of the Christian era. He became
famous as the founder of the Mülasaãgha.
Samantabhadra,
who is known to be the great leader of Jaina religion and thought through his
works, lived in the second century A.D. He is known to have gone from place to
place for the propagation of Jainism and attracted masses. According to the
Áravaîa Belagolä inscription70 dated
1050 Áaka era, he beat the drum (literally invited the opponents to refute him)
in Päûaliputra, Malwa, Sindh and Ûhakka country (in Punjab), and came to Käñchï
in the South and thence to Kaôîäûaka. This statement seems to be based on old
traditions.
8. Jainism In Mathura
Region (Sürasena Janapada) (C. 208 B.C. - 200 A.D.)
From
the Jaina traditions, it is known that Jainism was prevalent at Mathura, capital
of ancient Sürasena-Janapada from very early times. In the beginning, Mathura
was governed by the Mitra rulers during the second century B.C. as known from
the coins. Afterwards it was ruled
over by the Scythian Chiefs, and then supplanted by the Kushänas. Kanishka was
undoubtedly the greatest among the Kushäîa rulers. He came to power in 78 A.D.
He ruled over a farflung empire with his capital at Peshawar. His vast empire
stretched across the Hindu Kush from Bihar to Khurasan in the West and from
Khotan in the Terim valley in the North to Konkan in the South. He was a great
patron of art and literature. His rule ended about 101 A.D. He was succeeded by
Vasishka who possibly ruled jointly with Huvishka.
Though
the latter ruled from his capital Mathura, his rule extended in the North-West
over Afghanistan. The last great king of the time in India was Väsudeva. The
Kushäîa age is regarded as the golden period in Indian history. The Jaina art
specimens are found in larger number in Mathura than Buddhist and Brahmanical.
It seems that the Jainas contributed to the prosperity of the Mathura
region.
According
to Asim Kumar Chatterji, the
Therävalï of the Kalpasütra mentioning Áakhäs belong to the
third century B.C. but, it seems that they originated much later. They were
redacted in cononical literature. The names of these Áakäs are found
mentioned in some Jaina inscriptions discovered at Mathura, Ahich-Chhatra etc.
in Uttar Pradesh.
The
story of Pärávas visit to Mathura is recorded in the Mäyädhammakahäo71, and
that of Mahävïra in the Vipäka Sütra72.
Regarding the actual introduction of Jainism in the Mthura region, we have a
story told in the Paumachariyam of Vimalasüri, a verse text composed
about 530 years after the Nirvana
of Mahävïra. According to this poem, Jaina religion was introduced in Mathura by
the following seven Jaina saints73
Suramantra, Árïtilaka, Árïtilaka, Sarvasundara, Jayamantra, Anilalalita and
Jayamitra. The above mentioned seven Jaina saints, we are told, were responsible
for the introduction of Jainism not only in Mathura but also in
Säketa.74 We are
informed by Vimala Suri that there was a temple dedicated to Munisuvrata,
the 20th Tïrthanõkara at the town of Säketa75.
Apparently, this temple was built a few centuries before Vimala Suri. It
is one of the earliest Jaina tmples of Northern India. The Jaina Rishis
went to Mathura from Saketa76.
Jainism travelled to Mathura from Ayodhyä.
The
earliest Jaina inscription from Mathura is of 150 B.C. Jainism got a foothold
there by the beginning of the second century B.C. if not earlier. The Jaina
canonical writers believe Kosala to be homeland of most of their earlier Jaina
Tïrthaõkaras. Some of the seven monks were the teachers of a few Jaina monks
mentioned in the inscriptions.
The
earliest Jaina inscription77 from
Mathura has been assigned to the middle of the second century B.C. by Buhler. The same inscription78
records dedication of an arch for the temple (Päsädo toraîa) by
Sävaka Uttaradäsaka, son of Vachï and disciple of the ascetic
Mahärakhita. Chronologically, the next Jaina inscription from Mathura is that
which mentions a person calle Gopiputra and his wife Simiträ who belonged to
Kauáika gotra79. The
important expression of this inscription is the epithet 'Pothayaáakakälaväla
given to her husband Gopiputra 'black' serpent to the Poûhayas and Áakas.
Poûhayas are mentioned along with the Áakas.
Some
other Pre-Kushäîa Jaina inscriptions were discovered in Mathura but majority of
them are undated. The most important is the inscription which mentions the Áaka
Mahäkshatrapa Áoâäsa80, son
of Mahäkshatrapa Rañjuvula. Both Rañjuvula and Áoâäsa are mentioned in the well
known Mathura Lion capital inscription, and also the Mora well
inscription81 which
refers to the Vôishîi heores. Another inscription from Mathura82
records the setting up of a shrine (devikula) of the Arhat, a
Äyägo Áabhä, a reservoir (Prapä) and stone slabs (Áiläpaûa
in the Arhat temple (Arahatäyatana) of the Nigathas (Nirgranthas)
by a few courtesans (Gaîikäs). Another pre-Kushäîa inscription83
records the setting up of a tablet of homage by Áivayaáa who has been described
as the wife of a dancer called Phaguyaáa. Another inscription84 refers
to Sihanädiaka, son of Vaîika and Koáikï, set up a tablet of homage
(äyägapaûa) for the worship of Arhats.
Pre-Kushäîa
record85
mentiones a Jaina monk called Jayasena and his female disciple Dharmaghosha. It
further records the gift of a temple (Päsäda) by that lady. An
inscription86
mention a Árävikä called Lahastinï. It records the dedication of an arch.
It refers to the setting up of a tablet of homage (äyägapaûa) by one
Arhat, the daughter-in-law of Bhadrayaáas and wife of Bhadranandi87. The
another gift of another äyägapûa recorded in an inscription88 by a
woman, the wife of one Mäthuraka (inhabitent of Mathura).
The
Pre-Kushäîa record mentions Bhagavat Nemesa.89 The
god nemesa who is sculptured as a goat-headed deity here is Hariîegamesï of the
Jaina cononical texts. This god as we learn from the Kalpa Sütra
transferred the embryo of Mahävïra from the womb of Devänadä to that of
Triáalä.
A
good number of dated Jaina inscriptions of the Kushäîa period are found from
Mathura. The earliest of such inscriptions is that which is dated in the year
four corresponding to 82 A.D. which falls within the reign of the great Kushuaîa
king Kanishka. It mentions a monk called Pushyamitra90
and for the first time in the Jaina records of Mathura, the
Gaîa, Kula and Áäkhä of a particular monk are mentioned.
These Gaîas, Kulas and Áäkhäs originated after Bhadrabähu, who was
a contemporary of Chandragupta Maurya. According to the present inscription, the
monk Pushyamitra belonged to the Väraîa Gaîa, Hälakiya Kula and
Vajanagarï-Áäkhä. The particular Áäkhä should be connected with
the Vôiji country.
A
number of Jaina image inscriptions bearing the date of the year 5 of the reign
of Kanishka have been found. There are references to the Gaîa Koûiya and
a preacher (Vächaka). It is the most popular Gaîa of Mathura.
Majority of the inscriptions found from this region mention this particular
Gaîa.
The second inscription91 of
year 5 mentioning Devaputra Kanishka, records the gift of an image of
Vardhamäna by a woman, female companion of Sethiniha. The particular monk
belonged to Koûiya Gaîa, Bhamadäsika Kula and Uchenägarï
Áäkhä. Uchenägarï Áäkhä was named after the fort of Unchanagar
(Buland Shahr). The two other inscriptions92 of the
same date refer to the same Gaîa, Kula and Áäkhä. The next
inscription93 is
dated in the year 7 and mentions Mahäräjädhiräja Devapäla Áähï Kanishka.
The Gaîa also like Koliya and Väraîa originated in the second half of the
third century B.C.
One
inscription94 of the
year 9 mentions 'Mahäräja Kanishka. It records the dedication of an image
by Vikaûä, Koliya Gaîa, Sthaniya Kula and Vairï
Áäkhä. Another image inscription95 of the
year 12 mentions that how carpenters jointly make a gift of an image. The next
Jaina inscription96 dated
15 records the dedication of a four-fold (Sarvatobhadrikä) image of
Bhagvat by Kumäramitä, wife of Áreshûhin Veni. The inscription97 of the
18 year refers to a Sarvatobhadrikä image and also mentions the Koliya
Gaîa and Vaachchaliya Kula. Another inscription98 yields
the name of Arishûanemi, the 22nd Tïrthaõkara. The image inscription99 of the
year 19 refers to t Tïrthaõkara Áäntinätha. The Koliya Gaîa, Thäîiya Kula
and Verï Áäkhä are also mentioned. The two inscriptions100 of
the year 20, first dedicated of an image of Vardhamäna - Koliya Gaîa,
Sthäniya Kula, the Verï Áakhä - the second inscription101
Koliya Gaîa, Brahmadasiya Kula and Uchenagarï Áäkhä.
There
are two inscriptions of the date 22. The first102
records the dedication by Dharmasomä, the wife of caravan leader. The second
inscription records the dedication of an image of Vardhamäna.103 There
is an inscription of the year 25.104 The
inscription of the year 28 mentions the king Väsishka, the successor of
Kanishka.105 There
are two inscriptions of the year 29. In the first inscription106, the
name of the king Huvishka has been mentioned. Another refers to Mahäräja
Devaputra Huvishka.107
There
is an inscription108 of
the year 30. The inscription109 of
the year 32 refers to an unnamed perfumer. The inscription of the year 35
records the dedication of an image of Vardhamäna by the perfumer.
The
Jaina elephant inscription110 of
the year 38 is of great interest. It mentions Mahäräja Devaputra Huvishka
and also records the setting up of elephant Naãdiviáäla by the Áreshûhin
Rudradäsa for the Worship of Arhats. The Jaina inscriptions111 of
the years 40, 44112,
45113,
47114,
49115,
50116 and
52117, are
also concerned with donations.
The
image inscription of the year 54 records the dedication of an image of Sarasvatï
by the worker in metal118. The
next inscription dated 60 mentions Mahäräjä, Räjätiräja Devaputra
Huvishka. It records the dedication of an image or Ôishabha119. Two
inscriptions120 are
dated year 62, and the next is dated 74121. An
interesting inscription122 of
the year 77 records the dedication by one Devila at the temple of Dadhikarîa.
The next inscription123 dated
80 mentions Mahäräja Väsudeva.
There
are two inscriptions of the year 84. The first inscription124
mentions Mahäräja Räjätiräja Devaputra Áähï Väsudeva. It records the
setting up of an image of Ôishabha by several women. The second
inscription125 of
the year 84 records the gift of an image of Vardhamäna. There are inscriptions
of the years 86126,
87127,
90128 and
93129
respectively.
The
inscription130 of
the year 98 refers to rajña Väsudevasya and two monks Kshema and Devadatta who
belonged to Udehikiya Gaîa, the Paridhäsika Kula and Petaputrikä
Áäkhä.
A
certain perfumer (Gandhika) called Varuîa is mentioned. A few
inscriptions of the post-Kushäîa period have also been found from the Mathura
region.
The
Mathura inscriptions of the early period abundantly prove the tremendous
popularity of Jainism from the second century B.C. onwards. From the
Paumachariyam of Vimalasurï, it is known that Jaina saints
preached Jainism both at Säketa and Mathura. These inscriptions of Mathura show
that very few among Jaina devotees came from the so-called aristocratic
families. No inscription from Mathura yields the name of any Brämaîa patron of
Jainism. From the study of the Jaina inscription of Mathura, it is clear that
the followers of Jainism were common people. They belonged to the business
community.
R.D.
Banerji edited an interesting
image – inscription131 which
mentions a monk of Adhichchhatra (i.e. Ahich-chhatra) belonging to Petavämika
Kula and Väjanagari Áäkhä. It is was taken by him to be an
inscription from Rämnagar, ancient Ahich-chhatra. In any case, this inscription
certainly proves that Ahichchhatra was not immune from Jaina influence in the
Kushäîa period.
A
council was summoned at Mathura under the presidentship of Ärya Skandila
between the year 827 and 840 after the death of Mahävïra (i.e. 300-313 A.D. and
the scriptural texts were brought into order. This is known as the Mathura
version (Vächanä) of the Canons. The Jaina canonical writers believe
Koáala to be the homeland seuerd of their earlier Tïrthaõkaras.
It
seems that the cult of the sculpture of Jaina Tïrthaõkaras originated a century
or two after the Nirväva of Mahävïra. However the traditional belief is that
images of Trithaõkara Mahavir were made during his own liketime, which are known
as Jeevitswam.The Jaina sculptures of these Jaina Tïrthaõkaras in large number
were made from the second century B.C. The Nirväîa sites of most of the
Jaina Tïrthaõkaras was in Magadha (Bihar) and of birth in Uttar Pradesh because
Jainism was prosperous in these two regions during the second and the third
century A.D.
Besides
Mathura, Ahichchhatra in Pañchäla Janapada, Kauáämbï in Vatsa and Ayodhyä in
Koáala became the Centres of Jainism. Not only traditions but even
archaeological and epigraphical sources given some idea about the state of
Jainism. Jainism made striking progress in Uttar Pradesh during the first and
second century A.D.
From
the Paumachariyam, it is known that there was a temple of Muni
Suvratasvämin at Säketa. That Säketa was connected with Muni suvrata is
proved by the evidence of Vividhatïrthakalpa132. This
temple was probably built much earlier here.
That
Pabhosä cave was sacred to the Jaina is proved by the discovery of Jaina images,
and carvings from there133.
Three standing Jaina images cut in rocks, are also to be found there134.
There is little doubt that a number of Jaina monks lived in this cave, and most
of them were residents of Kauáämbï. This city also yielded a number of Jaina
antiquities of the Kushäîa period135. It
was the birth place of Padamprabha, the sixth Tïrthaõkar. An
inscription136 of
the year 12 of king Áivamitra, which mentions three monks Baladäsa, Áivamitra
and Áivapälita. The reference to the Kauáämbikä Áäkhä which has been
mentioned in the Therävalï also directly proves the early popularity of
Jainism in that region.
Árävastï
remained associated with Jainism in very early times. It is said to be the birth
place of the third Jaina Tïrthaõkara namely Saãibhavanätha. The Therävalï
refers to the Árävastikä Áäkhä which originated during this period. The
original temple of Sambhavanätha was probably built probably a few
centuries before the birth of Christ. It was in ruins when Fahien visited this
city. The ruined temple has yielded a good number of Jaina images including
those of Ôishabhanatha, and Mahävïra137. The
temple of Sambhavaratha at Árävastï was rebuilt several times, and finally it
was destroyed during the reign of Alauddïn as we learn from Jinaprabha. That
Árävastï afterwards became a famous centre of Digambara religion is evident from
the Bôihatkathäkoáa of Harisheîa composed in 791 A.D.
Ahichchhatra
(now known as Rämnagar in Bareli District, Uttar Pradesh), Capital of North Pañchäla, was
an important seat of early Jaina religion. A number of Jaina images were
unearthed at this site. Ahichchhatra remained sacred to Pärávanätha and there
was a shrine dedicated to this Tïrthaõkara at this town. Sïlaõka, who flourished
in the second half of the ninth century A.D. in the
Ächäraõgavritti138,
distinctly refers to this shrine. Jinaprabha Süri in his
Vividhatïrthakalpa139 gives
a graphic and beautiful description of the shrine dedicated to Pärávanätha.
Áïlaõka informs that Päôáva was worshipped here as Dharaîïndra. But
according to Jinaprabha140, the
shrine of Dharaîïîdra was near the original shrine of Päráva. The epigraphic
evidence fully supports the Jaina tradition regarding the existence of a shrine
dedicated to Päráva at Ahichchhatra. A Kushäîa inscription141 found
engraved at the pedestal of an image of Neminätha, bearing the date 50, refers
to the shrine of divine Pärávanätha.
A
number of Jaina inscriptions of the Kushäîa period have been discovered from
this place and at least one of them refers to the city of Ahichchhatra142. The
Kushäîa inscriptions from this city contain the following dates - 9, 18, 31, 44
and 74. Most of the Jaina sculptures from Ahichchhatra belong to the Mathura
School of Art. The names of Gaîa, Kula and Áäkhä are
usually like those of Mathura. The most common Gaîa is Koliya. The image
discovered here are generally nude and they belonged to the Digambara temple of
Ahichchhatra.
The
Jaina inscriptions from Ahichchhatra disclose the names of the Árävakas
and monks. The inscriptions with the years 9 (87 A.D.), 12 (90 A.D.) etc.
mention carpenters by caste. All these evidences go far to prove the popularity
of Jainism at Ahichchhatra in early days.
Another
city Kämpilya was intimately connected with Jainism in pre-Gupta period. This
place has been indentified by A. Cunningham143 with
Kampil in Farukhabad District, Uttar-Pradesh. As known from the traditions
contianed in Jaina canonical texts144, this
place was visited by Päráva and Mahävïra. It is believed to be the birth place
of the 13th Jaina Tïrthänkara Vimalanätha. It has been mentioned in the
Bhagavatï145 and
Aupapätikasütra146. The
fourth Niîhava Äsamitra who flourished 220 years after Mahävïra's death, i.e. in
the third century B.C. was associated with this town. The Uttarädhyana147, old
Jaina canonical text, refers to a certain king Sañjaya, who was a Jaina devotee.
This place has yielded a few Jaina inscriptions.
Säõkäsya
is identiied by A. Cunningham
with Saõkissa in Farrukhabad District of Uttara Pradesh. The Therävalï of
the Kalpasütra refers to the Saõkhäsiya Áäkhä under Chäraîa
Gaîa i.e. Värîa Gaîa established during this period. This
definitely proves Sänkäáya early association with Nirgrantha religion.
9. Avanti, Maharashtra And
Saurashtras
After
the downfall of the Mauryas, India fell a victim to foreign invasions. The early
advent of the Áakas into Western Malwa from Seistan Via Sind and Kathiawad, in
the second century B.C is known from the Kaläkächärya Kathänaka. After
establishing their hegemony in Sauräshûra Kathiawad, they may have penetrated
into Malwa. On the basis of traditions, Rajbai Pandey148
suggests that there was a ruler named Vikramäditya in Avanti during the first
century B.C. He defeated the Áakas
who invaded India for the first time in the first century B.C. In order to
commemorate this event, he inaugurated a new ear in 57 B.C. called Vikrama
Saãvata. He was a great conqueror as well as a patron of art and
literature. On the other hand, D.C. Sircar149 does
not regard Vikramäditya as a historical figure because there is no contemporary
evidence for his existence.
It
seems that two families Kshataräta and Kärdamakas of the Western Kshatrapas
ruled over Western-India as Kshatrapas of Kanishka-I and his successors.
Afterwards, they became independent. Nahapäna of the Kshaharäta family became
independent, and also conquered some territories. In about 124-125 A.D., he
seems to have been defeated by the Sätavähana ruler Gautamïputra Sätakarîi.
Chasûana, founder of the Kärdamaka family, established his capital at Ujjain.
Chasûana under his grandson Rudradäman defeated the Sätavähana ruler
Gautamïputra Sätakarîi and conquered several territories. Sometimes after
130-131 A.D., Rudradäman succeeded to Chasûana as Mahäkshatrapa. From the
Junagarh inscription dated 150 A.D., he seems to be a powerful ruler and he
claims to have extended his empire by his conquests. These Western Kshatrapa
rulers ruled for about three hundred years, till their power was finally crushed
by Chandragupta-II.
From
the traditions recorded in the Jaina Nibandhas, we know that Jainism was
associated with Sauräshûra and Avanti in the first century B.C. The great Jaina
saints and scholars like Kälakächärya, lived and propagated Jainism in this
area. At this time, it was a living and active religion, and it influenced the
life of the people. Some of the Jaina sources150 claim
Vikramäditya as a convert to Jainism. It is claimed that Siddhasena Diväkara,
having caused the breaking of the phallic symbol Mahäkäla in Ujjayinï, and the
appearance of the image of Pärávanätha, enlightened Vikramäditya. According to
the Digambara Jaina Paûûävali151,
Vikramäditya played as a child for eight years, for sixteen years, he performed
sacrifices following a false doctrine; or forty years, he was devoted to the
religion of the Jaina, and then reached heaven. It seems that the ancestral and
personal religion of Vikramäditya was Áaivism, but he was also under the
influence of Jainism and patronised it. The temple of Avanti Sukumäla was
probably in existence at Ujjain during this period.
A
short Brähmï inscription found in a cave near Pale in Poona District,
Mahäräshtra may be assigned to the first century B.C.152 This
inscription records that a certain Bhadaãta Idarakhita (Indrarakshita), probably
together with some others, caused the cave and a cistern to be excavated. The
expression Áähä Kähi Saha occurring towards the end of the record is
difficult to interpret. The importance of the record lies in the expression
'Namoarahaãtänaã' which commences the writing. It means obeisance to
arahaãtas, and it may therefore be taken as Maõgalächaraîa. In no
other record of the numerous inscriptions belonging to pre-Christian period from
the caves of Western Mahäräshûra, does this expression find a place. This
invocation occurs in a definitely Jaina context in this expression. This
inscription proves the existence of Jainism in Maharashtra during the first
century B.C.
According
to Jaina traditions, Nahapäna, after his defeat at the hands of Gautamïputra
Sätakarîi at Bhôigukachchha in 66 A.D., became a Jaina monk known as Bhütabali
(C. 66-90 A.D.) after abdicating the throne. Though newly initiated, he might
have been considered quite capable for the important task of reducting the
canon. He was taught by an eminent Guru Dhara-Sena and was guided in his
work by his senior colleague
Pushapadanta. He completed the work of Shaûakhaîâägama in C. 75
A.D.153
The
Junagarh inscription154 of
the grandson of Jayadämana (either Dämayagada or Rudrasiãha-I) belonging to the
second century A.D., makes a mention of men who had attained perfect knowledge
(Kevalïjñäna), and were free from old age and death (Jarämaraîa).
This inscription contains the earliest reference to Jaina monks claiming the
attainment of perfect knowledge. This inscription is found in a cave which
appears to have been used by the Jaina monks as is indicated by the peculiar
Jaina symbols like the Svastika, Bhadräsana, Mïnayugala and
others. Of nearly the same date may be the caves found at Dhank in which the
sculptures of the Jaina Tirthaõkaras Ôishabha, Päráva, Mahävïra and others have
been definitely identified. The Giranar inscription actually refers to the
Samädhimaraîa of the Digambara Jaina saint Dharasena, the original author
of the Digambara canon, who according to the tradition, resided at
Chandraguptä of Girnar-whence the inscription was discovered155.